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^

JOURNAL

OF THE

Association it Engineeriog Societies.

Boston. Cleveland. Minneapolis. Louisiana.

Montana. St. Paul. Buffalo. Cincinnati.

Detroit. Pacific Coast. St. Louis.

CONTENTS AND INDEX.

VOLUME XXVI.
January to June, 1901.

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOARD OF MANAGERS OF THE ASSOCIATION OF
ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

John C. Tsautwine, Jr., Secretary, 237 S. Fourth Street, Philadelphia.
^ C* O *♦* ' >

4o4do

I

*/

CONTENTS.

VOL. XXVI, January-June, 1901.

For alphabetical index, see page v.
No. i. JANUARY.

PAGE

Hydraulic Excavation. Latham Anderson I

Street Lighting of Cities. Henry H. Humphrey 18

Water Power by Direct Air Compression. William O. Webber 35

A Modern American Blast Furnace — Its Construction and Equipment. Arthur

C. Johnston, M. E 47

Obituary. — George W. Percy 59

Association of Engineering Societies 62

Proceedings.
Lists of Members of the Associated Societies.

No. 2, FEBRUARY.

Brick and Concrete-Metal Construction. Economy and Strength of Brick and
Concrete Arches for Floor Systems of Highway Bridges. William D.

Bullock 73

A Test of the Strength of Rapp Floor Arches. Frederic H. Fay ... 79
Expanded Metal as Used in Fireproof Building Construction and Other

Work. William M. Bailey 84

Description of Ransome System of Concrete Steel Floors. M. C. Tuttle . 93
Tests of Roebling Fireproof Floors. Andrew W. Woodman, C. E . . 100

A Review of Concrete-Metal Construction. Chas. M. Kurtz 108

The Steel Skeleton Construction of a Tall Office Building. J. S. Branne . . 125
The Engineering Society — Its Relations to the Engineer and to the Profession.

H.J. Malochee 149

Proceedings.

No. 3. MARCH.

A Study in Hydraulics. George H. Fenkell 155

Discussion. Messrs. Hazen, Hubbell, Williams, Trautwine and Fenkell 163

Submerged Pipe Crossings of the Metropolitan Water Board. Caleb Mills

Saville 193

Discussion. Messrs. Herschel and Mclnnes 219

iv ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

PAGE

Extension of the Group Theory of Atoms and Molecules. Arthur A. Skeeh . 223
Engineering Explorations in Montana and Elsewhere in the Rocky Mountains.

Francis W. Blackford 239

Obituary. — James S. B. Hollinshead 251

Henry M. Claflen 253

Proceedings.

No. 4. APRIL.

Installation, Operation and Economy of Storage Batteries. Ernest Lunn . . 255

Concrete Construction. C. R. Neher 273

Discussion. Messrs. Diehl, Neher, Knighton, Vander Hoek, Tut/on,

Rocktvood and Norton . . . 279

Obituary. — Sherman Emmett Burke 283

Proceedings.

No. 5. MAY.

The Softening of Feed Water for Boilers. Louis Bendit 285

On the Engineering Difficulties Attending a Proper Inspection of Cement.

J. F. Coleman 305

Discussion. L. IV. Brown 311

Early Transportation Canals. J. T. Fanning 315

Proceedings.

No. 6. JUNE.

Subaqueous Tunnels for Gas Conduits. IV. JV. Cummings 327

Discussion. Messrs. Carson, Saville, Shailer and Cummings .... 339
The Increasing Elevation of Floods in the Lower Mississippi River. Linus IV.

Brown 345

Discussion. Messrs. Richardson, Harrod, Hardee, Lewis and Brown . 360

Obituary. — David Walker Hardenbrook 402

Proceedings.

INDEX.
VOL. XXVI, January-June, 1901

The six numbers were dated as follows :

No. 1, January. No. 3, March. No. 5, May.

No. 2, February. No. 4, April. No. 6, June.

Abbreviations. — P = Paper ; D = Discussion : I = Illustrated.

. . . " .

Names of authors of papers, etc., are printed in italics.

PAGE

J\ir Compression, Water Power by Direct . William O. Webber.

P., L, Jan., 35

Arches, Rapp Floor , A Test of the Strength of . Frederic H. Fay.

P., I., Feb., 79

Anderson, Latham. Hydraulic Excavation P., I., Jan., 1

Annual Report of the Chairman of the Board of Managers Jan., 65

Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board of Managers Jan., 65

Arches, Economy and Strength of Brick and Concrete for Floor Systems

of Highway Bridges. Wm. D. Bullock P., I., Feb., 73

Articles of Association Jan., 62

Atoms and Molecules, Extension of the Gioup Theory of .

Arthur A. Skeels P., I., March, 223

Bailey, William M. Expanded Metal as Used in Fireproof Building Con-
struction and Other Work P., I., Feb., 84

Jjatteries, Storage , Installation, Operation and Economy of .

Ernest Lunn P., I., April, 255

Bendit, Louis. The Softening of Feed Water for Boilers . . .P., I., May, 285
Blackford, Francis W. Engineering Explorations in Montana and Else-
where in the Rocky Mountains P., March, 239

Blast Furnace, A Modern American , Its Construction and Equipment.

Arthur C. Johnston P., I., Jan., 47

Boilers, The Softening of Feed Water for . Louis Bendit . P., I., May, 285

Branne, J. S. The Steel Skeleton Construction of a Tall Office Building.

P., I., Feb., 125
Brick and Concrete-Metal Construction.

Economy and Strength of Brick and Concrete Arches for Floor Systems

of Highway Bridges. Wm. D. Bullock P., I., Feb., 73

A Test of the Strength of Rapp Floor Arches. F. H. Fay. P., I., Feb., 79
Expanded Metal as Used in Fireproof Building Construction and Other

Work. William M. Bailey '. . P., I., Feb., 84

Description of Ransome System of Concrete Steel Flotfrs. M. C. Tuttle.

- P., I., Feb., 93
Tests of Roebling Fireproof Floors. Andrew W. Woodman.

P., I., Feb., 100
A Review of Concrete-Metal Construction. C. M. Kurtz. P., I., Feb., 108

(v)

vi ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

PAGE

Bridges, Floor Systems of Highway , Economy and Strength of Brick and

Concrete Arches for . Wm. D. Bullock P., I., Feb., 73

Brown, Linus W. The Increasing Elevation of Floods in the Lower Missis-
sippi River P. , D., June, 345

Building, The Steel Skeleton Construction of a Tall Office .

J. S. Branne P., I., Feb., 125

Bullock, William D. Economy and Strength of Brick and Concrete Arches

for Floor Systems of Highway Bridges P., I., Feb., 73

Burke, Sherman Emmett . Obituary. Engineers' Club of Cincinnati . April, 283

(^anals, Early Transportation . J. T. Fanning May, 315

Cement, On the Engineering Difficulties Attending a Proper Inspection of .

/. F. Coleman P., D., May, 305

Chairman of Board of Managers, Annual Report of Jan., 65

Claflen, Henry M. . Obituary. Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland . March, 253

Coleman, J. F. On the Engineering Difficulties Attending a Proper Inspec-
tion of Cement P., D., May, 305

Compression, Water Power by Direct Air . William 0. Webber.

P., I., Jan., 35

Concrete Construction. C. R. Neher P., D., I., April, 279

Concrete-Metal Construction, Brick and P., D., I., Feb., 73

Concrete-Metal Construction, A Review of . Charles HI. Kurtz.

P., I., Feb., 108

Conduits, Gas Subaqueous Tunnels for . W. W. Cummings.

P., D. , I., June, 327

Cummings, W. W. Subaqueous Tunnels for Gas Conduits. P., D., I., June, 327

I^arly Transportation Canals. J. T. Fanning P., May, 315

Electric Lighting of City Streets. Henry H Humphrey .... P., I., Jan., 18
Engineering Explorations in Montana and Elsewhere in the Rocky Moun-
tains. Francis W. Blackford P., March, 239

Engineering Society, The Its Relations to the Engineer and to the Pro-
fession. H.J. Malochee P., Feb., 149

Excavation, Hydraulic . Latham Anderson P., L, Jan., 1

Expanded Metal as Used in Fireproof Building Construction and Other Work.

William M. Bailey P., I., Feb., 84

Extension of the Group Theory of Atoms and Molecules. Arthur A. Skeels.

P., I., March, 223

panning, J. T. Early Transportation Canals P., May, 315

Fay, Frederic II. A Test of the Strength of Rapp Floor Arches. P., I., Feb., 79

Fenkell, George H. A Study in Hydraulics P., D., I , March, 155

Fireproof Building Construction and Other Work. Expanded Metal as Used

in . William 71/. Bailey P., I., Feb., 84

Fireproof Floors. Roebling, Test of . Andrew W. Woodman . P., I., Feb., 100

Floods, The Increasing Elevation of in the Lower Mississippi River.

Linus W. Brown P., D., June, 345

Floor Arches, Rapp A Test of the Strength of Frederic II. Fay.

P., I., Feb., 79
Floor Systems of Highway Bridges. Economy and Strength of Brick and

Concrete Arches for . Wm. D. Bullock P., I., Feb., 73

Floors, Description of Ransome System of Concrete Steel . M. C Tuttle.

P., I., Feb., 93

INDEX. vii

PAGE

Floors, Roebling Fireproof Tests of . Andrew IV. Woodman

P., I., Feb., ioo
Furnace, Blast A Modern American , Its Construction and Equip-
ment. Arthur C. Johnston P., I., Jan., 47

(jas Conduits, Subaqueous Tunnels for . W. IV. dimming:;.

P., D., I., June, 327

j-j ardenbrook, David Walker . Obituary. Montana Society of Engineers.

June, 402

Hollinshead, James S. B. . Obituary. Montana Society of Engineers.

I., March, 251

Humphrey, Henry H. Street Lighting of Cities P., I., Jan., 18

Hydraulic Excavation. Latham Anderson P., I., Jan., 1

Hydraulics, A Study in . George H. Fenkell . . . . P., D., I., March, 155

Increasing Elevation of Floods in the Lower Mississippi River. Linus W.

Brown P., D., June, 345

Installation, Operation and Economy of Storage Batteries. Ernest Lunn.

P., I., April, 255

J ohnston, Arthur C. A Modern American Blast Furnace — Its Construction

" and Equipment P., I., Jan., 47

}\_urtz, Charles M. A Review of Concrete-Metal Construction. P., L, Feb., 108

Lighting, Street — of Cities. Henry H. Humphrey P., I., Jan., 18

Lunn, Ernest. Installation, Operation and Economy of Storage Batteries.

P., I., April, 255

^[a/oehee, H J. The Engineering Society — Its Relations to the Engineer

and to the Profession P., Feb., 149

Metropolitan Water Board, Submerged Pipe Crossings of the . Caleb Mills

Saville P., D., I., March, 193

Mississippi River, The Increasing Elevation of Floods in the Lower .

Linus W. Broivn P., D., June, 345

Modern American Blast Furnace, A Its Construction and Equipment.

Arthur C. Johnston P., I,, Jan., 47

Molecules, Atoms and , Extension of the Group Theory of . Arthur

A. S/ceels P., I., March, 223

Montana, Engineering Explorations in — — and Elsewhere in the Rocky Moun-
tains. Franeis IV. Blackford P., March, 239

j\c'/^r, C. R. Concrete Construction P., D., I., April, 273

(Jbxtuary —

Sherman Emmett Burke, Engineers' Club of Cincinnati .... April, 283

Henry M. Claflen, Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland .... March, 253

David Walker Hardenbrook, Montana Society of Engineers . . . June, 402

James S. B. Hollinshead, Montana Society of Engineers . .1., March, 251

George W. Percy, Technical Society of the Pacific Coast . . .1., Jan., 59

Office Building, Steel Skeleton Construction of a Tall . J. S. Branne.

P., I., Feb., 125

On the Engineering Difficulties Attending a Proper Inspection of Cement.

J. /*'. Coleman P., D., May, 305

viii ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

PPAGE
ercy George W. . Obituary. Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

L, Jan., 59

Pipe Crossings, Submerged -of the Metropolitan Water Board.

Caleb Mills Saville P., D., I., March, 193

Power, Water by Direct Air Compression. William 0. Webber . P., I., Jan., 35

J[\ansome System of Concrete Steel Floors. Description of Jll. C. Tuttle.

P., I., Feb., 93

Rapp Floor Arches. Test of the Strength of . Frederic H. Fay. P., I., Feb., 79

Review of Concrete-Metal Construction. Chas. M. Kurtz . . . P., I., Feb., 108
Rocky Mountains, Engineering Explorations in Montana and Elsewhere in

the . Francis W. Blackford P., March, 239

Roebling Fireproof Floors, Tests of . Andrew W. Woodman . P., I., Feb., 100

^aT'ille, Caleb A/ills. Submerged Pipe Crossings of the Metropolitan Water

Board P., D., I., March, 193

Secretary of Board of Managers, Annual Report of Jan., 65

Skeels, Arthur A. Extension of the Group Theory of Atoms and Molecules.

P., I., March, 223

Softening of Feed Water for Boilers, The . Louis Bendit . . P., I., May, 285

Steel Skeleton Construction of a Tall Office Building. J. S. Branne. P., I., Feb., 125

Storage Batteries, Installation, Operation and Economy of . Ernest Lunn.

P., I., April, 255

Street Lighting of Cities. Henry H. Humphrey P., I., Jan., 18

Study in Hydraulics, A- . George H Fenkell .... P., D., I., March, 155

Subaqueous Tunnels for Gas Conduits. W. W. Cummings . . P., D., I., June, 327
Submerged Pipe Crossings of the Metropolitan Water Board.

Caleb Mills Saville P., D., I., March, 193

J unnels for Gas Conduits, Subaqueous . W. W. Cummings.

P., D., I., June, 327
Tuttle, M. C. Description of Ransome System of Concrete Steel Floors.

P., I., Feb., 93

Water Power by Direct Air Compression. William 0. Webber . P., I., Jan., 35

Water, The Softening of Feed for Boilers. Louis Bendit . . P., I., May, 285

Webber, William 0. Water Power by Direct Air Compression . P., I., Jan., 35

Woodman, Andrew W. Tests of Roebling Fireproof Floors . . P., I., Feb., 100

GEORGE W. PERCY

President, Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.

As

SOCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Organized 18SI.

Vol. XXVI. JANUARY, 1901. No. i.

This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or for
the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.

1

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATION.

By Latham Anderson, Member Engineers' Club of Cincinnati.

[Read before the Club, October 18, 1900.*]

The origin of hydraulic mining is recorded as follows by an
eminent authority, Mr. Charles Waldeyer, of California, and pub-
lished in the report of Dr. Rossiter W. Raymond, United States
Commissioner of Mining Statistics, 1873. Page 390 et seq.:

"The origin of hydraulic mining dates back as far as the
spring of 1852, . . . when a miner, whose name is forgotten,
put up a novel machine on his claim at Yankee Jim, in Placer
county, Cal. This machine was very simple. From a small ditch
on the hillside, a flume was built towards the ravine, where the
mine was opened; the flume gained height above the ground as
the ravine was approached, until finally a 'head' or vertical
height of 40 feet was reached. At this point the water was dis-
charged into a barrel, from the bottom of which depended a hose,
about 6 inches in diameter, made of common cowhide, and ending
in a tin tube about 4 feet long, the latter tapering down to a final
opening or nozzle of I inch.

"This was the first hydraulic apparatus in California. Sim-
ple in design, dwarfish in size, yet destined to grow out of its in-
significance into a giant powerful enough to remove mountains
from their foundations."

Within three decades after the conception of that germ of
the giant the topography of two antipodal continents has been
profoundly modified, in large areas, by hydraulic mining. In
California alone countless millions of cubic yards of detritus, torn
from their primordial beds, have been transported from the moun-
tains to the ocean, an average "haul" of more than 100 miles,
or have been dropped on the way in the main river beds and the
Bay of San Francisco. Many miles of the abyssmal canyons of

*Manuscript received December 31, 1900. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

the Sierras have been filled a hundred feet and more in depth by
the heavier parts of the tailings.

When one is first brought to face these stupendous results,
he finds it difficult to accept facts so at variance with previous
human experience. But the main facts are incontrovertible, hav-
ing been recorded in years of litigation and legislation concern-
ing the struggle for existence between the farmers and the miners.
For the filling of the river beds with tailings so increased the
destructive effects of floods as to damage or ruin whole districts
of farming country, and the shoaling up of large areas in the bay
had so seriously affected navigation therein that these two inter-
ests combined and organized to demand the abolition of hydraulic
mining. The outcome was a Waterloo to the great hydraulic
mining companies. Nothing could more strongly emphasize the
vastness of these deposits and their resulting damages than that
verdict of the courts and legislature. It is still further accentu-
ated by the fact that these findings and laws were possible in Cali-
fornia,— the child of mining, and especially of gravel mining, —
which has produced more than three-fourths of all the gold output
of the State.

The extent of these mining operations may be further illus-
trated by a glance at two of the large hydraulic mines as types of
the class, — viz, the North Bloomfield, in Nevada county, Cal., and
the Spring Valley, at Cherokee, Butte county. The capital in-
vested in the North Bloomfield was $2,500,000. To gain outlet
for the tailings into the nearest canyon, a tunnel 7 by 9 feet, 6900
feet long, had to be cut through solid rock. The sluice line was
over 2 miles in length and 6 feet wide. The "bank" or auriferous
gravel deposit was 400 feet deep and 600 feet wide, the company
owning a mile and a half in length of this deposit. A 6-inch
g;ant was used under a 500-foot head delivering 32.8 second feet
of water and developing nearly 1690 horse power; and a 7-inch
nozzle under a 250-foot head, delivering 31.54 second feet and
developing about 1560 horse power. From 15,000 to 18,000 cubic
yards of gravel were washed away each day of twenty-four hours.

The Spring Valley bank was about 400 feet in height. The
bed rock tunnel was much shorter, but to obtain a dumping
ground the company had to purchase over 700 acres of valuable
farm land. At the time of the writer's visit in 1882, they had
buried this land 12 feet deep with tailings, were expecting to add
three feet to this depth, and still would be under the necessity of
buying more land.

At the Dardenelles Mine 10-inch nozzles, under heavy pres-
sure, are said to have been used.

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATION. 3

All the data concerning the three above-named mines are
given from memory, the writer not having any records at hand
for verification.

It may seem superfluous to rehearse before an audience of
engineers so many facts concerning hydraulic excavation, which
have become stale history. The only purpose of the recital is to
emphasize the strangeness of this strange freak in economic his-
tory, that in this century, pre-eminent for discoveries and appli-
ances in the mechanical arts, so little has been done towards
adopting, in general engineering practice, this most economical of
all methods of earth removal. It is still more singular that it
has not been generally adopted in the mining of other ores than
gold, especially in winning limonite iron from its clay beds on
the flanks of hills to which, in the writer's opinion, it is better
adapted than even to gold mining.

But this is only in passing, as mining is not within the scope
of this paper.

For the purposes of this discussion, there are three different
processes employed in hydraulic excavation, — viz:

First. The sluice (sometimes called the "ground-sluice").

Second. The "giant."

Third. The "boom."

Under certain conditions all may be used to advantage by
the general practitioner.

The second is, in the opinion of the writer, more generally
applicable, and more powerful and economical in the class of works
herein contemplated.

The sluice is best adapted to shallow deposits, where the
banks would not be high enough to cause danger from caves. It
consists simply of a line of boxes laid along the bottom of an
open cut through the deposit to be moved. The material is
loosened by the pick or plow, and shoveled by hand or dumped
from wheelbarrows into the stream running through the boxes,
at the lower end of which it is discharged upon the dump. Of
course the more copious the supply of water, and the rate of
fall in the boxes, the greater their carrying power and the econ-
omy of the process.

The boom consists of a temporary dam behind which the
water supply is allowed to accumulate till a sufficient amount is
stored, when the water is let out in a rush by suddenly opening
large flood gates. The wave or torrent thus produced is directed
against the foot of the bank to be removed. It is said that the
boom has seldom been used outside of Colorado; but its advo-

4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

cates there claim that it is one of the most economical methods
of hydraulic excavation where the supply of water is either very
abundant or very scarce.

The writer has had no experience with the hydraulic boom,
and only quotes from other writers on the subject.

The following- table is quoted from Van Wagenen's "Manual
of Hydraulic Mining" (D. Van Nostrand Company), page 20, to
illustrate the comparative efficiency of primitive hand work and
the three types of hydraulic mining above enumerated.

The two materials assumed as a basis of comparison are
ordinary loose and cemented gravels. Of course only an ap-
proximate and general average is attempted in such tables. Ac-
cording to the writer's experience, while very soft and friable clay
will cut and wash away more rapidly than any gravel, the average
compact clay bank will come between the two enumerated gravels
in rate of working, being closer to the loose gravel.

TABLE.

ORDINARY. CEMENTED.

By the pan. 1 cu. yd H cu- yd.

" " rocker. 2 "yds 2 " yds.

" " long ton. 5 to 6 " " 3 to 5 " "

" " sluice. 10 to 20 " " 6 to 12 " "

" " hydraulic. 100 to 1000 " " 100 to 1000 " "

" " boom. unlimited. unlimited.

The table shows the number of cubic yards of dirt which may
be washed per day of ten hours per man, in the first two cases
each man working alone, and in the last four in pairs or econom-
ically arranged gangs.

The likelihood that the boom will ever be indicated as a
sole means of excavation in general practice is so remote that the
device is not worthy of consideration here, but it may, in rare
instances, be a useful auxiliary to the giant. It is also frequently
beneficial to increase the carrying capacity of an hydraulic sluice
line by turning into its head an auxiliary natural stream without
head, or from a lower source than that supplying the giant.

Mr. Waldeyer's paper, above quoted, contains a lucid descrip-
tion of hydraulic mining, and, notwithstanding the fact that it
was written more than a quarter of a century ago, the reader
may gain a clear impression of all the essential features of the
process which are germane to this discussion.

But a word of caution is demanded here to the reader who
consults text-books on hydraulic g-old mining for information as

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATION. 5

to the serviceability of the hydraulic for general purposes. We
must keep in mind that the sole aim of the miner is to save gold,
and as much gold as possible, consistent, of course, with economy.
To this end, it is always necessary to restrict the amount of gravel
carried by the boxes in order to increase the yield of gold.

(It goes without saying that all the mere gold-saving im-
provements and appliances of the miner are foreign to the topic
in hand.) The maximum discharge of the boxes occurs when the
velocity of the current is greatest and the water is most charged
with mud, but the clearer the water and the slower the current the
more readily will the fine gold settle to the bottom of the boxes
and be caught by the quicksilver. Hence the necessity of re-
stricting the discharge, in order to' increase the amount of gold

saved, and whence it follows that statistics from gold-mining
practice must invariably underestimate the capacity of the giant
as a labor-saving device.

To recapitulate the conditions essential to economical hy-
draulic excavation, they are : the greater the volume of water, the
head and the fall in the sluice line, the higher the bank (i.e., the
deeper the cut), and the more available the dumping ground, the
greater the economy.

As all of these must be self-evident to every engineer, ex-
cept possibly that of the height of the bank, we will refer to that
at length further on.

It is now in order to outline the process of opening and
working an hydraulic mine. From the great storage reservoir
in the Sierras, fifty or one hundred miles distant, a ditch conveys
the water to the service or distributing reservoir, which is on the
nearest hill to the "cut" which will give the required "head" or pres-
sure. From the distributing reservoir the water is conveyed to
the workings in a riveted sheet iron pipe, in 16-foot lengths, which

6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

are jointed stovepipe fashion. To the lower end of the pipe
line P, Fig. i, is strongly attached the giant. A longitudinal
section of one of the smaller sizes is shown in Fig. I. This con-
sists of a pipe about 9 feet long, attached at its lower end to a
cast iron globular casing or jacket G\ inclosing the minor globe
G. Attached to the outer surface of G are the trunnions T,
whose horizontal axis passes through the center of the spherical
surfaces G and G1. The trunnions pass outwardly through col-
lars in the casing G1. This arrangement permits ample upward
and downward movement of the pipe. The outer end of the
pipe is provided with a screw joint, so that nozzles N of different
aperture may be attached. There is a horizontal joint J between
the lower extension of the globe, called the "goose neck" (GN),
and the heavy bedplate BP. Of course all joints and bolt holes

Fig. 2

S

S

Sin

Sin

1 •
1

•1
, — +

Sin,

1 •

8

• |

Sin

*

must be packed water-tight. (The joint J is tightened by the rod
R passing down through the goose neck and bedplate.) Hori-
zontal and vertical motion may be imparted to the pipe, simul-
taneously, if desired, by the lever L, a piece of scantling attached,
at its front end E, to the pipe by the collar strap C, and to the
fulcrum F by the collar C1 and the pin P3.

The plan of the bed frame is shown in Fig. 2, in which S.S.
are the bed sills and Sm,Sm are the mud sills. Nailed to the top
of the lever is a shallow wooden box W, which is weighted down
with loose stones so as just to counterbalance the downward
reaction of the water upon the pipe. It is apparent that this
machine is so simple as to be readily set up, managed and kept
in order by any workman of average intelligence. But, like
many other simple machines (billiard cues, for instance), there
are widely differing degrees of skill displayed by different prac-
titioners. This is so pre-eminently true with regard to the giant

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATION. 7

as to make the pipeman the essential and most important em-
ploye on the works after the installation is complete. In fact,
the degree of economical success or failure of the enterprise is
gaged by his skill. It lies in him to make or mar the business.
It is, therefore, a sheer waste of money to put such a plant in the
hands of a novice or of an unskillful pipeman. Quick percep-
tion, nerve, intelligence and good judgment all go to make up the
ideal pipeman or bank foreman. (In small plants the two offices
are usually combined.)

THE NOZZLE.

The nozzle N requires further notice. Upon the perfection
of its shape and condition the cutting efficiency of the stream
mainly depends. The cutting power of a stream of given volume
and nozzle velocity is in the ratio of its solidity at the point of
impact. Strictly speaking, a column or shower of spray 'has no

Fig. 3

Fig. 4:

a

fr {. \ ,i

V «•: J

Sec. on ab Fig. ■&

r A * —

h
Sec. on v d Fig. S

cutting power; it merely washes. But a solid stream with a noz-
zle velocity of say 90 feet (due to a head of 150 feet) pierces a
bank like a projectile or bores like an auger. It surprises the
novice to see what refinements of precaution are requisite to in-
sure such solidity of stream.

First. Xo entrained air should be permitted to pass the
nozzle.

Second. The bore of the latter should be of correct shape
("ajutage"), and, in the cylindrical part, should be as true and
smooth as a gun barrel. Because iron soon becomes roughened
by rust, hard gun metal is a better material for nozzles.

Third. Rifles or radial plates r, r, Figs. 3 and 4, should
be inserted in the pipe to prevent the rotary motion otherwise
bound to occur, which whirling motion of the column would de-
stroy its cylindrical shape and solidity.

THE SLUICE LINE.

In gold mining, the boxes, Figs. 5 and 6, must be of planed,
tongued and grooved lumber, so as to be perfectly water-tight,
since the smallest leak would cause the loss of fine gold and

8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

amalgam, and they must have costly bottom paving. But, for
our purposes, any tolerably tight boxes of cheap, undressed lum-
ber will answer. And here is our first advantage in point of
economy over the gold miner. A further gain is in avoiding
(usually) the costly bottom paving of the gold miner, no lining
being required for small operations, say of 20,000 or 30,000 yards,
while for larger ones 1 or i|-inch plank bottom linings would
usually be sufficient on moderate grades. The upper end of the
boxes should be provided with flaring wings of temporary sheet
piling.

Near the head of the upper box is placed an inclined grating,
with spaces of such size as to arrest all stones too large to be car-
ried freely by the current in the boxes. The rejected stones are
forked over in a pile to one side of the line of boxes by a man sta-
tioned at the grating for that purpose. If required, these piles
of stones may be carried or run out of the cut on a tramway as

j 1 ■ 1 1 i_

Fig. 5. Elevation of Upper End.

the work proceeds. The giant is set up a little to one side of the
sluice head.

Everything is now in position to begin the cut. Fig. 7 shows
in plan the relative positions of the sluice head S, the giant G
and the initial point P. T.T. is the tramway for removing the
piles of refuse R (including boulders, stumps, roots of trees, etc.).
The stream from the giant is turned upon the point P. A cavity
is rapidly formed in the base of the hill and a mixture of water,
mud and stones pours down into the boxes. When the face of
the cut approaches the limit of the giant's cutting efficiency, the
work is stopped. The giant is taken up, a new joint or joints of
pipe are added, and the giant set up in its new position. Espe-
cial care is demanded in securing the bed frame of the giant firmly
in the ground. Small, sharp gravel or firm soil should be rammed
hard around the mud sills, and the frame should be strongly
braced against forward or lateral motion, because a very slight
movement of the giant would loosen some of the joints in the
pipe line.

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATION. 9

The sluice head is carried forward at the same time with the
giant, by adding boxes at the upper end.

When the bank attains a height of 15 or 20 feet, it is usually
in a shape to begin the first cave. The foot of the bank is under-
cut several feet in height, forming a cave, or a series of caves
with intervening pillars. When the caves are knocked into one
by cutting out the pillars, the overhanging mass trembles, splits
off on the plane of the back of the cave, and plunges into the
cut with a momentum that shatters the mass. Now, the higher
the bank the larger will be the amount of overhanging earth
brought down by a given amount of undercut, whence the econ-
omy of high banks becomes apparent. Take the case of a bank
like that at North Bloom-field, 400 feet high. Suppose the cut is
40 yards long, 2 yards deep and 10 feet high. The amount of un-
dercut would be about 260 yards, and the amount caved down

&13 X 4 l£j 3x4 1 X C

Strip

Fig. 6. Section of Elevation on Line a b, Fig. 5.

would be over 10,000 tons. But such high banks are usually so
dangerous that it is preferred to work them in two stages, as they
were doing at North Bloomfield on the occasion of the writer's
visit. But operations on such a scale would rarely, if ever, be
demanded in engineering work. In railroad cuts of from 40 to
100 feet, for instance, it is not likely that more than from 2 to 4
second feet of water under 150 feet head (2 to 3-inch nozzles)
would ever be required. In most cases, especially on high sum-
mits, the water would have to be delivered by steam power.

To recapitulate, in point of economy our practice is inferior
to the great hydraulic mining plants in the following particulars :

First. In volume of water.

Second. (Usually) in amount of head or pressure.

Third. (Probably in most localities) in not having a natural
or gravity supply and pressure.

But, on the other hand, we have the following advantages
over any and every mining plant:

io ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

First. We may use cheaper boxes and sluice line.

Second. We avoid the expense of all the costly gold-saving
devices and appliances, — e.g., costly bottom paving in the sluice
line, undercurrents, box-riffles, retort house and the loss of at
least four days' time each month in "cleaning up" (collecting
amalgam) and in repairing sluice line.

Third. We save the interest and sinking fund on the capital
invested in the huge dam and reservoir, and in the scores of miles
of main ditch.

Fig. 7.

Fourth. The outlay, in railroad work especially, will be
much smaller for giants, pipe line, tools and machinery for the
cut than in mining.

As a deduction from the foregoing premises, we conclude
that, under certain conditions, a great saving may be effected in
the cost of the above indicated classes of engineering work by
the use of hydraulic excavation, especially with the nozzle.

That this conclusion may not be relegated to the domain of
abstract argument, your attention is called to the following recent

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATION. n

instances of the successful application of hydraulic cutting and
filling in general engineering practice.

We will begin with extracts from "Reservoirs for Irriga-
tion," by James D. Schuyler, Member American Society of Civil
Engineers (United States Geological Survey Report, 1896-97,
Part IV).

HYDRAULIC DAM CONSTRUCTION.

La Mesa Dam, San Diego, Flume county, Cal., for the pur-
pose of storing the flood water of San Diego River, etc. "The
dam was designed and constructed by J. M. Howells, C.E., Presi-
dent of the San Diego Flume Company. . . . It is an earth
and rock-fill dam, 66 feet high and 20 feet wide on top, the ma-
terials for which were transported and deposited in place by
flowing water, by the process known to miners as 'ground-sluic-
ing,' the surplus water from the flume being used for this pur-
pose, and at the same time being stored in the reservoir as it was
being formed back of the dam (page 649). The volume of ma-
terial handled was 38,000 cubic yards, which had to be brought
an extreme distance of 2200 feet, and stripped from an area of
ir| acres to a mean depth of 2 feet. Had the material been favor-
able in depth and character, it is thought the entire dam could
have been finished for 25 or 30 per cent, of its ultimate cost,
which was about $17,000. Instead of sluice boxes, the material
was conveyed for the last 2000 feet in 24-inch wooden stave
pipes lined with strips of steel to resist wear. Cost, 90 cents
per foot. (Page 650.)

PROPOSED PINE VALLEY DAM, SAN DIEGO, FLUME COUNTY.

(Page 653.)
Dam to be 130 feet high, 30 feet wide on top. The water
to be used for sluicing will have to be pumped to a height of 400
feet, in order to reach the deposits of material available for
sluicing, but the engineer estimates that even this high lift is
feasible and profitable, and he expects to increase the duty of
water used from 5 per cent, of solids conveyed (the maximum ac-
complished at La Mesa Dam) to about 20 per cent, of solids, or
13 cubic yards per miner's inch of twenty-four hours (0.02 cubic
foot per second). "If this duty can be maintained, and the cost
of pumping be assumed at a maximum of 5 cents per 1000 gallons,
the cost per yard for water will be about 5 cents, with but little
additional cost for loosening (with pick), as the material is soft."
(Please note that if giants were used no additional cost for loosen-
ing would be incurred.)

12 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

PROPOSED LAKE HELENA DAM, SAN DIEGO RIVER.

(Page 654.)
The proposed dam is 1100 feet long on top, 190 feet at base,
155 feet high, 25 feet wide on top, bottom thickness of 650 feet
and to contain 789,000 cubic yards. "This site is considered
favorable for hydraulic construction because of the abundance
of material on both sides and the possibility of using water
under high pressure to loosen the material by powerful jets from
hydraulic mining giants.

DAM AT TYLER, TEXAS.

(Page 654.)

This dam, constructed in 1894, has the following features:
Length 575 feet, height 32 feet, and contains 24,000 cubic yards.
This impounds 1770 acre feet and covers 177 acres.

The water was pumped through a 6-inch pipe from the old
city pumping station. This hill is 150 feet high and the pipe
terminated halfway from its base, where a common fire hydrant
was placed, to which was attached an ordinary 2^-inch hose with
a i|-inch nozzle. The cost, including the plant and all the appurte-
nances of the reservoir, was 4! cents per yard.

The following additional facts throw further light upon the
secret of this remarkable result:

"The stream was directed against the face of the hill under
a pressure limited to 100 pounds per square inch. The washing
was carried rapidly into the hill on a 3 per cent, grade, which
soon gave a working face of 10 feet or more, increasing gradually
to 36 feet in vertical height. By maintaining the jet at the foot of
the cliff it was undermined as rapidly as it could be broken up and
carried away by the water."

SAN LEANDRO AND TEMESCAL DAMS, CALIFORNIA.

(Page 655.)

These furnish part of the supply of the city of Oakland, hav-
ing 60,000 inhabitants. They were constructed by their princi-
pal owner, Mr. A. Chabot, who had been a practical hydraulic
miner.

The Temescal Dam was built in 1868. The work was con-
tinued a number of seasons by collecting storm water from time
to time. The dam is 105 feet high and 18 feet wide on top, cover-
ing only 18.5 acres, with a capacity of 188,000,000 gallons.

The San Leandro Dam was built in 1874-75, and has a height
of 120 feet above the stream bed. Total volume of dam is 542,-

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATION. 13

700 yards, of which 160,000 yards were deposited by the hydraulic
process. The water was brought four miles in a; ditch, and the
sluiced materials were conveyed in a flume lined with sheet iron
plates, laid on a grade of 4 to 6 per cent. The water used was
10 to 15 second feet, and the ground-sluicing method was alone
employed ; nevertheless the cost was estimated at one-fourth to one-
fifth that of putting the earth in place by carts or scrapers.

HYDRAULIC FILLS ON THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY.

(Page 657.)

At trestle No. 374, North Bend, in Frazer River Canyon,
there is required to fill the chasm an embankment 231 feet in ex-
treme height and containing 148,000 cubic yards. The plant con-
sisted of 1450 feet of sheet steel pipe 15 inches in diameter, 1200
feet of sluice boxes or flume 3 feet wide and 3 feet deep; one No.
3 "giant" monitor with 5-inch nozzle, and a large derrick driven
by a Pelton water wheel. Piping head 125 feet. The sluice
boxes were laid on grades from 11 to 25 per cent., partly sup-
ported on high trestles. The boxes were paved with wood blocks
on the lighter grades and old railway rails on the heaviest. Fifty
per cent, of the pit consisted of cemented gravel, 30 per cent, of
loose gravel and 20 per cent, of large boulders which had to be
removed by the derrick. Nevertheless, the entire cost of the
work, including the plant, was $5089, or at the rate of 7.24 cents
per yard (and including explosives used on the cemented gravel).
"Had the pressure of the water been greater (400 to 500 feet head)
and the gravel loose, the duty of the water would have been in-
creased four- fold."

The entire force employed consisted of eight men, all com-
mon laborers except the pipeman. The water used was ap-
proximately 20 second feet or 1000 miner's inches, the duty per-
formed being 1.77 yards per twenty-four-hour inch. At the cross-
ing of Chapman's Creek the railway company, in 1894, made a
similar fill of 66,000 yards at a total cost of 7.5 cents per yard, of
which 3.2 cents was for plant. The actual work of sluicing cost
bat 1.78 (one and seventy-eight hundredths) cents per yard.

HYDRAULIC FILLS ON THE NORTHERN PACIFIC RAILWAY.

(Page 659.)
Work of a precisely similar nature has been in progress for
a number of years past on the line of the Northern Pacific Rail-
way, where several high and dangerous trestles have been re-
placed by hydraulic-made embankments of earth, gravel and loose

i4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

rock. During 1897, nine high trestles, requiring from 6200 to
108,500 cubic yards. Of this amount 377,000 cubic yards in
eight of the trestles were moved and put in place at an average
cost of 4.79 cents per cubic yard. The detail of the cost is given
below:

Sluicing and building side levees 3.85 cents.

Hay used in levees 09

Tools 08

Lumber and nails 22

Labor building flumes 44

Engineering and superintendence 11

Total 4-79

"In all the above work the water was carried to the borrow
pits and the sluicing done by gravity. In one case, however,
pumping was resorted to, and 42,250 cubic yards were moved by
water thus lifted, at an average cost of 13.5 cents per cubic yard."

"The plant required is rather inexpensive. According to
locality, one nozzle would require from 300 to 1000 feet of light
sheet iron pipe costing 27! cents a foot and a No. 2 giant costing
$95. Outside of this nothing is required except picks, shovels,
hoes and axes. From five to six men are required with each
nozzle to build the levee, build sluice boxes and do everything
else required."

THE DRAINAGE OF THE OKEFINOKEE SWAMP, GEORGIA.

In the "Engineering Society Annual of the University of
Georgia," Vol. I, 1893, page 12, there is an article entitled "Hy-
draulic Excavation," by B. M. Hall, C.M.E., formerly a professor
in the Georgia University. From this valuable paper we make
the following extracts:

"Notwithstanding the fact that hydraulic gold mining has
been in progress for so many years on the Pacific slope and in
the State of Georgia, engineers seem slow to adopt this cheap
plan of excavation for other work, such as railroads, canals, etc.,
even when the conditions necessary to successful operation are
all present and in plain view.

"These conditions are:

"1. Material that is soft enough to be loosened and washed
away by water.

"2. A sufficient volume of water at an elevation above the
proposed cut.

"3. Sufficient grade, away from the bottom of the cut, for
giving the water enough velocity to take away the material.

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATION. 15

. . . Where booming is resorted to, for getting soft material
out of the way, the cost is often as low as one cent per cubic
yard. . . .

"The most important work of this nature that we know of is
being done in Charlton county, Ga., by the Suwanee Canal Com-
pany, in excavating the outlet canal for the drainage of Oke-
finokee Swamp. That swamp, situated in Charlton, Clinch, Ware
and Pierce counties, is a shallow fresh water lake, covering an
area of 400,000 acres and filled with black muck. . . .

"The Suwanee Canal Company purchased the greater part of
this land from the State of Georgia, and about 100,000 acres from
individuals. The object of their undertaking is:

Summit JEl. 148.00

/ \Preliminary Cut

L—^—X El. 131.00

P \

El. of Swamps / <\

11G.00 / -\

Fig. 8. Drainage of Okefinokee Swamp, Georgia. Hor. Scale i Mile
to 1 Inch. Ver. Scale.

"1. To cut and place on the market this vast store of valua-
ble timber, and,

"2. To thoroughly drain the lands for cultivation.

"A profile of the swamp and proposed drainage is shown by
Fig. 8.

"In making plans for drainage, the first thing necessary was
to provide a sufficient outlet by cutting a deep canal through the
dividing ridge. It is here that the method of hydraulic excava-
tion is being used on a grand scale and in a highly interesting
manner. First, a narrow, shallow canal was cut across the ridge
with teams and scrapers as in railroading. Its depth was about
17 feet at the summit, and it ran to nothing at e.ach end, as its
bottom was level across the ridge. ... At the eastern mar-

16 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

gin of the swamp a pumping plant, consisting of two 8o-horse-
power boilers and two 14-inch centrifugal pumps, lifts 30,000 gal-
lons of water per minute into a flume, producing an immense
stream, which runs into and through the canal. At the eastern
end of this preliminary cut, where the slope toward the mine is
steep, the water began to do its work. A deep and wide canal
is being carried rapidly back toward the swamp."

A "porcupine" harrow, made of a round log filled with har-
row teeth, is dragged up and down the canal by steam power, a
distance of 1000 feet. The excavated material is dumped into a
lateral ravine of such storage capacity that nothing but clear
water drains into the St. Mary's River. The average cost of ex-
cavation on the outlet canal is 2\ cents per cubic yard.

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATION AT SEATTLE.

The Seattle and Lake Washington Navigation Company is
opening navigable tidal' channels by dredging and the reclamation
of tide lands adjacent to the business center of Seattle, Wash-
ington, by filling with the fine black sand dredged from the chan-
nels. Two powerful dredges are used, each with a capacity of 600
to 700 cubic yards per twenty-four hours, which is pumped from
the bottom of the channel through 18-inch pipes, a distance of
2000 to 4000 feet, and deposited to a depth of 18 to 20 feet over
the area to be reclaimed. Some 36,000,000 cubic yards are to be
handled in this way, and 1500 acres filled in solidly to a height of
2 feet above tide. About 1,000,000 yards had been put in place
January 1, 1897, the cost of which was 16 cents per yard by con-
tract.

In conclusion, the writer desires to call the attention of the
Club to what he considers a rare opening for an extensive and
profitable hydraulic cut and fill in Cincinnati. The whole of Mill
Creek bottom, between Hopkins street and Harrison avenue and
between the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton and the Baltimore
and Ohio Railroads, could be filled in by piping down the north-
ern end of Mt. Harrison, to a level, say, ranging from 70 to 90
feet above datum. In the writer's opinion, little, if any, explosive
would be required, provided not less than 20 second feet of water
were used and under a head of not less than 250 feet. The water
would be pumped from the river at the mouth of Mill Creek into
a temporary reservoir on top of the ridge south of Liberty street.
The reservoir need be only large enough to perform the function
of a standpipe in maintaining an even pressure. A vertical cut
of at least 200 feet could soon be established, when, by taking

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATION. 17

advantage of soft layers at the base in undercutting, immense
masses might be caved down. After the caves the softer parts
and finer stone could easily be piped away, leaving the larger
merchantable stone to accumulate on the floor of the cut, per-
fectly clean. Assuming that the stone averaged 20 per cent,
of the bank, and that it is worth on the ground 40 cents per
cubic yard, the stone would pay 8 cents per cubic yard of bank
toward the cost of excavation. On this basis the writer esti-
mated, some years since, that the work could be done at 15 cents
per yard net, provided not less than 3,000,000 cubic yards were
moved.

[2]

18 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

STREET LIGHTING OF CITIES.

By Henry H. Humphrey, Member of the Engineers' Club of St. Louis.

[Read before the Club, November 21, 1900.*]

The proper lighting of streets in our modern cities cannot
be overestimated. Their illumination is scarcely secondary in
importance to the maintenance of grades and paving. When the
streets are neglected until their surfaces have become uneven and
unsafe, the necessity of illumination is heightened.

It is evident to any one at all observant that the recent
developments in street illumination are in the direction of a uni-
form and diffused light, rather than along the well-beaten path of
previous years which gave brilliantly lighted crossings and
Egyptian darkness in the middles of the blocks. The develop-
ment of the inclosed arc lamp and the growth of mantle gas
lighting are illustrations of this point.

Some cities still cling to the old-style open arc lamp; nota-
bly the city of Chicago, which is still making all its increase with
this type of lamp, and the city of Denver, Col., which is at present
installing a new city lighting plant using open arcs for all but one
of the circuits. It is reported, however, that this feature of this
contract may be changed before the plant is completed and in-
closed arc lamps installed throughout the city.

The question of the candle power of the lamp itself is one of
importance, but is evidently not a "paramount issue." The old-
style direct-current series open arc lamp is without doubt superior
in actual candle power to any of the later types of inclosed lamps.
Nevertheless, it is giving place very rapidly to inclosed arc lamps
of either the direct current or alternating current type. Devel-
opment along the lines of electrical progress is not always made
in the interest of the public, or of the users of light. Many sys-
tems, improvements, etc., are developed by the manufacturing
companies for the sole purpose of making an increased market
for their goods. This development in arc lamps, however, pass-
ing from the open lamp to the inclosed lamp, is one that directly
benefits the public and the user of light. Admitting that the
candle power is considerably less, for the same expenditure of
energy in the lamp, the light is so much easier on the eyes in
the immediate neighborhood of the lamp, and the illumination is
so much more uniform, that the result is far superior.

A comparison of candle powers between the direct-current
open arc, the alternating-current inclosed arc and the direct-cur-

^Manuscript received December 10, 1900. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

STREET LIGHTING OF CITIES.

19

rent inclosed arc lamps, is somewhat uncertain, owing to the dif-
ferent methods employed by different observers and to the differ-
ent standards of light used. In fact, the result of candle-power
measurements of arc lamps has been so uncertain that very few
authoritative data upon this subject have been published.

In Fig. 1 a series of curves, prepared by Mr. H. H. Wait,
of Chicago, and presented to the Northwestern Electric Associa-
tion, is reproduced here by his permission.

OO 8o°

I— D. C.

II— D. C.
Ill— D. C.
IV— D. C.
V— A. C.

Fig. 1.

Open arc.

Inclosed arc, clear inner globe.

" alabaster inner globe, with reflector.

" " opal inner globe, without reflector.

No. 1 represents the direct-current open arc lamp.

No. 2, the direct-current inclosed arc lamp with clear inner
globe.

No. 3, the direct-current inclosed arc lamp with alabaster
inner globe and with reflector.

No. 4, the alternating-current inclosed arc lamp, with ala-
baster inner globe and with reflector.

so ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

No. 5, the alternating-current inclosed arc lamp, with opal
inner globe and without reflector.

These curves show very decidedly the sacrifice of maximum
illumination, in one direction, in order to secure a more uniform
distribution of light and a better average illumination.

It is almost universally conceded that the direct-current in-
closed arc lamp produces more light per watt than the inclosed
alternating-current arc lamp, but the exact ratio between them
has not, to my knowledge, been determined. The best data
that I am able to find are the tests made by Prof. C. P. Mathews,
of Purdue University, under the direction of the Committee on
Arc-Light Photometry of the National Electric Light Associa-
tion. His tests are based on constant-potential lamps, instead
of upon series lamps, and his watt measurements are taken across
the lamp terminals instead of across the arc only. He has tested
8 direct-current inclosed arc lamps and 7 alternating-current in-
closed lamps, made by different manufacturers. The average
difference in candle power between the direct-current lamps and
the alternating-current lamps is 30 per cent., the average differ-
ence in watts consumed at the terminals of the lamp is 27 per
cent.; the difference in watts at the arc is I2-| per cent.

Taking one particular case, comparing the performance of a
direct-current 558-watt lamp, with no outer globe and no shade,
with a 418-watt alternating-current lamp, with shade, gives a
. difference of 39 per cent, in light in favor of the direct-current
lamp at an expenditure of 23 per cent, more power in watts.
There is apparently but slight difference between the efficiencies
of these lamps when the watts across the terminals are consid-
ered.

His data also give the watts at the arc in each of these lamps.
The average watts used by the D. C. lamps are 529, of which
384 are available in the arc, and 144 or 27 per cent, are wasted in
the dead resistance and in the mechanism of the lamp. The aver-
age watts used by the A. C. lamp are 417, of which 342 are avail-
able in the arc and 74.5 or 18 per cent, are wasted in the mechan-
ism. If we reduce the results obtained, to the basis of light pro-
duced by watts in the arc, we find that the difference in candle
power with the same expenditure of energy in the arc is approxi-
mately 16 per cent, in favor of the direct-current lamp. The
average current for the direct-current lamps was 4.90 and for the
alternating-current lamps 6.29.

Fig. 2 shows two curves from his data for 450 watts-in-the-arc
arc lamps. In this figure, curves 1 and 2 are for the direct-

STREET LIGHTING OF CITIES. 21

current lamps; curves 3 and 4 are for the alternating-current
lamps. These are approximations only, since the candle power of
the lamp varies greatly with different makes of carbons and with
different current densities in the arc. These curves can be con-
sidered as approximating closely the conditions in series inclosed
lamps, since in this type of lamp only 3 per cent, of the energy
is used in the mechanism of the lamp.

300

200

100

100

200

300

The company which recently secured the electric lighting
contract in St. Louis for the next ten years proposed, at the
time of the award, to build a new power house and plant complete,
equipped for commercial lighting as well' as for public lighting.
Many of the contracts for machinery were awarded and actually
signed, when the sale of the stock of the company to local in-
terests changed entirely the scheme and development of the plant.
Believing that the engineering details in connection with this
work may have some general interest, I will describe briefly the

22 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

principal engineering features connected with the new electric
lighting system in this city.

The general design of this plant, as installed, was outlined
in the report of the engineers of the Imperial Electric Light,
Heat and Power Company, under date of September 3, 1897, as
follows:

"In an enterprise of this magnitude it seems to us advisable
to bear in mind the possibility of doing the city lighting from this
same plant. For a steady load, such as all-night street lighting,
when the generators can be worked to their full capacity during
their entire run, there is no apparatus that surpasses the direct-
current machine and series direct-current arc lamp. The new
series inclosed 150-hour arc lamp is being put upon the market
now and the reports that we have from it are entirely satisfactory.
Large direct-current multiple-circuit series arc lighting genera-
tors can now be obtained, suitable for direct connection to en-
gines, and give a large and efficient unit without the necessity of
excessively high voltage. We believe that this type of generator
would fulfill the requirements of city lighting better than any
alternating current or constant potential direct-current apparatus
would do."

Anticipating the city lighting contract, the company installed
one extra duct throughout its entire underground system, and a
trunk line of ten extra ducts north and south to the limits of the
underground district for the purpose of arc lighting. This fore-
sight has made it possible for the present contractors for city
lighting to install their work in the underground district within
the time available, an accomplishment that would have been im-
possible for any company having to install an entirely new system
of conduits.

The question of type of apparatus, whether to use the direct-
current series inclosed arc lamp, or its formidable rival, the alter-
nating series inclosed arc lamp, was promptly decided by the
adoption of the former. The comparative difference in candle
power of the two lamps, with the same consumption of energy,
was unquestioned, and, since the city lighting contract calls for
an expenditure of 480 watts at the arc, leaving the question of
candle power entirely out of consideration, it was the desire of the
company to give the public the benefit of the 16 per cent, in-
crease in light.

Advocates of the alternating-current system claim that they
can deliver more light from alternating-current lamps, operated
from large constant-potential alternating-current generators,

STREET LIGHTING OF CITIES.

23

than can be obtained from the use of direct-current apparatus.
While this is an open question, and one dependent almost entirely
upon the economy of the steam-generating and steam-using ap-
paratus in the station, it did not enter seriously into the con-
sideration of design of plant under the existing conditions. The
Imperial plant was already in operation, with a direct-current
system that had proved its efficiency and adaptability to the ser-
vice intended; and the city lighting load, consisting of hut 525
K. W., was too small a factor to affect seriously the design of

Fig. 3. Motor-Driven Arc Dynamos.

the entire plant. It is admitted that driving these arc dynamos
by means of compound condensing engines would be more effi-
cient, from coal to watts-at-arc, than the present motor-driven
units which, as shown below, give an efficiency of transformation
of 80-J per cent. About one-third of this. 19^ per cent, loss is
probably in the motor, and could have been saved by driving
direct from the engine. It is believed, however, that the practical
advantages to be obtained from a plant of this design, where a
multiplication of small units is avoided, where one man can oper-
ate the entire station, and where each large unit in the Imperial
plant is a reserve unit for the city lighting work, are so great that

24 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

they overbalance the saving in coal obtained by placing the prime
movers directly connected to the arc machines.

The arc lighting plant consists of 12 no-light Western Elec-
tric series arc .dynamos, built upon their standard 125-light
frames, and each machine guaranteed capable of operating no
500-watt series inclosed arc lamps through 40 miles of No. 8
B. & S. circuit. Each two arc machines are driven by a 200
horse-power direct-current 500-volt motor, the three comprising
a self-contained unit, five of which are capable of operating the
present city lights, leaving one unit as reserve. These machines

Fig. 4. 500- Volt Switchboard.

are located at present in a temporary building adjoining the Im-
perial plant on the east side and located on the south side of St.
Charles street, just west of Ninth street. In the design of the
complete plant these arc generators will be on the second floor
of the building, leaving the entire ground space available for
boilers, engines and 500-volt direct-connected generators. .Fig.
3 shows these machines.

Fig. 4 shows the 500-volt constant-potential switchboard,
with switch, starting box, ampere meter, etc., for each motor-
driven unit. The center of the board contains an "illuminated-
scale Weston 500-volt volt meter, showing the potential upon the

STREET LIGHTING OF CITIES.

25

bus bars at all times. Inclosed fuses for each circuit are placed
on the rear of the board.

Fig. 5 shows the arc board, containing 12 dynamo circuits
and 12 outside circuits. The terminals are widely separated, the
positive being at the top of the board and the negative at the

Fig. 5. Arc Lighting Switchboard.

bottom. Each circuit contains a combination Weston ampere
meter and polarity indicator. There is a transfer bus across the
middle of the board, so that a dynamo at one end of the board
can be connected to a circuit at the other end without stretching
long connecting cables across the front of the board. The center

26 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

of the board contains a Weston 10,000-volt volt meter with termi-
nal plugs. There is also a plug for ground connection, and two
plugs for 500-volt connection used for testing circuit during the
day. At the rear and above the board can be seen the static ar-
resters which will be mentioned later.

The arc machines are of the ironclad, Gramme Ring arma-
ture, bipolar type, each equipped with the well-known Western
Electric regulator. A special lightning arrester is placed upon
the pole of the machine in such a manner that the stray mag-
netism from the pole piece blows out the arc when a discharge
takes place.

The motors are 6-pole ironclad machines, and operate at a
speed of approximately 675 revolutions per minute. Each motor
has a special field rheostat, by which the speed can be regulated
through a range sufficient to provide for the variation in voltage
due to commercial load on the station bus bars supplying the
motors.

There are three circuits in the underground district, each
containing approximately 105 lamps. These are supplied through
No. 8 B. & S. lead-covered cables, manufactured by the Standard
Underground Cable Company, having 6-32 inch rubber and 3-32
inch lead. The cables are drawn into the ducts in continuous
lengths, from the base of the iron arc lamp pole on one corner to
the base of the iron arc lamp pole on the next corner, thus avoid-
ing all joints, either inside the ducts or in the manholes. The
district north of the underground district is supplied by four
overhead circuits, each containing approximately 90 lamps. They
are carried through the underground district to its limit at Ninth
and Wash streets, by means of a 12-conductor lead-covered cable,
the 12 wires being placed in one cable and surrounded by a lead
sheath % inch in thickness. This cable provides for four extra
wires for increase of plant or for use in case of trouble on any
one conductor.

The district south of the underground is supplied by three
circuits of approximately 90 lamps each, carried to the limit of
the underground district at Seventh and Spruce streets through
a similar 12-conductor cable.

For the overhead circuits triple-braided weather-proof wire
is used, supported on double-petticoat glass insulator.

The lamps are suspended at the corners of street intersec-
tions by means of iron arc lamp poles. The interior of the pole,
as shown in Fig. 6, contains a hoisting windlass and pulleys for
raising or lowering the lamp. The figure also shows the method

STREET LIGHTING OF CITIES.

27

of insulating the wires where they leave the iron pole and swing
up to the lamp. The lead-covered cable is brought from the
manhole, or service box in the street, through an iron pipe lateral,
both cables of the circuit being placed in the same 2^-inch iron
pipe. In the base of the lamp they end in special hard rubber

Fig. 6.

terminals, placed over the end of the lead sheaths and filled with
paraffine to prevent any possibility of moisture entering the cable.
From this special terminal a rubber-covered duplex cable, con-
sisting of 2 No. 12 B. & S. flexible wires surrounded by 7-64 inch
of rubber and the two conductors braided together, extends up

28 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

through the pole. This cable passes out through the special
porcelain insulator and up to the lamp, being supported above
the lamp upon a porcelain knob spreader and connected to a
solid wire which enters the binding post of the lamp, providing
a solid and secure connection at the binding post. These solid
wires are bared for a short distance at a point midway between
the porcelain knob and the binding post of the lamp, providing
a space where a specially constructed "jumper" can be readily
attached whenever it may become necessary for a lamp to be
changed while the circuit is in operation. The linemen carry in-
sulated stools upon which they stand while handling the live cir-
cuits.

The use of a switch in the base of these poles, by which the
lamp could be cut out of circuit entirely while a lineman is work-
ing upon it, would be very desirable, and such a switch was in-
stalled before the plant was put into operation. It took a very
short experience, however, with these switches, which were the
best the market afforded, to convince all connected with the en-
terprise that they were a failure in the position in which they
were placed. Being convinced that it would be impossible to de-
sign a practical switch which would occupy the limited space
available in the base of these poles and still be safely operative
upon 8000 volt circuits, they were abandoned entirely and the
solid connection was made as above described.

The use of iron poles for the suspension of arc lamps was a
condition of the city contract, which left the engineers no option.
The use of special terminals and the cable above described in
the underground district, and the use of special triple-petticoat
glass insulators on the poles on the overhead circuits, will, we
believe, render the circuits safe from anything but the ordinary
mechanical accidents incident to any class of apparatus placed
upon the streets of a city.

As intimated above, some trouble, due to the static discharge
from the underground cables, was encountered. This was not
unanticipated; but it was believed that drawing both cables
through the same iron duct, where they enter the base of the
iron arc lamp pole, would provide a sufficient connection between
the two, so that the lead sheaths would be practically connected
together throughout the entire circuit. At the plant all of the six
cables of the three circuits were drawn into the same duct of the
conduit and with the same object in view. It was ascertained,
however, soon after starting the plant, that these contacts were
not sufficient. The static effect from the cables manifested itself

STREET LIGHTING OF CITIES.

29

in the short-circuiting of arc lamps through the insulation at the
top of the inclosing globe, where the full difference of potential
of the lamp is effective. The lead sheaths of all the cables were
securely soldered together in the manholes where they enter the
lateral which goes into the lamp poles. They were also con-
nected securely together at the plant just behind the switchboard.
These efforts had little, if any, beneficial effect upon the opera-
tion of the circuits. In addition to this, a special static dis-
charger, shown diagrammatically in Fig. 7, consisting of an ordi-
nary Leyden jar condenser, was connected to the copper of each
circuit at the rear of the switchboard in the plant. Each con-
denser is provided with a revolving contact arm, driven by a small
motor which alternately connects the condenser to positive wire,

Fig. 7. Static Discharger.

to ground, to negative wire and to ground, thus receiving a
charge from the line and discharging it to ground about 30 times
per minute. After this apparatus was installed the static effect
of the cables has so entirely disappeared that it is not appreciable
in the operation of the plant.

The city contract includes 739 32 candle-power incandescent
lamps, located in the alleys throughout the electric-lighted dis-
trict. These are all supplied from the regular 3-wire 235-470 volt
mains of the Imperial Company, requiring, therefore, no special
apparatus. It might be of interest, however, to show a special
switch designed for switching these circuits in and out by means
of the arc lighting current. This switch, which was designed
by Mr. E. P. Warner, of Chicago, is shown in Fig. 8. When the
arc current is turned on it operates upon the solenoid, which, act-
ing through the lever, closes a 3-wire 500-volt switch, switching on

30

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

the alley incandescent lights throughout the district controlled
by this particular switch. When the arc circuit is shut down in
the morning the plunger of the solenoid is released, and, in fall-
ing, it opens the switch, cutting the incandescent lights out of
circuit. This simple arrangement saves the services of a man,
with horse and wagon, to go around and start the incandescent
lights, saving also the loss of current in switching lamps on ahead

Fig. 8. 500- Volt Switch Electrically Controlled by Arc Circuit.

of time where a considerable district must be covered and all the
lamps in the district started not later than the schedule time.

In Table A are shown the data obtained under test of one of
the motor-driven arc-light units, the test continuing from 12
o'clock midnight until the closing-down time in the morning.
The first column gives the time; the second, third and fourth
columns the amperes and voltage supplied to the direct-current
motor, also the rise in temperature of the motor fields during the
time of test. The fifth, sixth and seventh columns give the am-
peres, voltage and field temperature of one of the arc dynamos;

STREET LIGHTING OF CITIES.

31

column eight and nine, the amperes and voltage of the other arc
dynamo. Column ten gives the speed of the unit, column eleven,
the temperature of the air in the room, and column twelve the
efficiency, being the ratio of the electrical input to the electrical
output of the unit. You will observe that each reading gives two

TABLE A.
Test of Motor-Driven Arc Unit.

Motor.

No. 7 Arc Dynamo.

No. 8
Arc Dynamo.

Speed.

Air

Temp.

F°.

Effi-

Time.

Amp. Volts.

Field
Temp.

F°.

Amp.

Volts.

Field
Temp.

Amp.

Volts.

ciency.

I2-IO

325 1 49°
300 482

140

7.0
6.7

8580
8125

128

7.0
68

9346
8850

675

108
no

78.6

12-30

330 487
302 480

147

7.0
6.8

8791
8325

130

7-i
6.9

9346
8850

677

109

114

79.O

1-00

325 497
305 488

154

7.0
6.8

9425
8925

135

6.9
6.7

9610
9100

676

109

114

82.5

1-30

340 505

320 493

*57

7.0
6.9

9610
9100

140

7.0
69

9979
9450

676

108

no

79-8

2-00

325 512
303 502

158

7.0 9610
6.8 9100

142

7.0
6.8

9504
9000

700

107
109

80.4

2-30

320 500
300 490

160

6.9 9346
6.8 8850

144

7.2
7.0

9187
8700

701

109

112

81.0

3-00

330 500
310 490

162

7.0 9504

6.8 9000

[

147

7-i
6.9

9557
9050

695

I08
I07

80 9

3-30

327 505
305 495

162

7.0 9400
6.9 8900

148

7.0
6.8

9504
9000

700

no
116

80.0

4-00

325 507
305 498

154

7.0 9504
6.9 9000

151

7.0

6.8

9610
9100

720

107

107

81.2

4-30

327 515
305 504

153

7.o 9557
6.9 9050

152

7.0
6.8

9820
9300

715

109
115

80.5

5-00

320 515
300 503 !

150

7.0 9900
6-9 9375

152

7.0

6.8

9504
9000

730

no
117

82.4

5-50

323 520
305 5°7

148

7-0 9451
6.9 8950

148

7.0
6.8

9583
9075

100
no

79-3

Average efficienc

■

80.5

figures, the first figure in each case being that of the standard
test instruments, while the second reading is that of the regular
station switchboard instruments. The test instruments read uni-
formly higher than the station instruments. They were carefully
compared with recently calibrated instruments, and they are be-
lieved to be correct. The total capacity called for in each of

32

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

these arc machines, as given above, is 1 10-500 watt arc lamps each
through 40 miles of No. 8 B. & S. wire. This is equivalent to a
total voltage of 8750 volts at 7 amperes. The test shows that
the machines ran above their rated load during the entire test,
the load on one reaching as high as 9979 volts, which is 15 per
cent, above the rating.

The guaranteed efficiency of the unit was 78^ per cent. The
average efficiency during test was 8of per cent., reaching, in one
case, as high as 82^ per cent, and in another 82.4 per cent. The
machines came well within their guarantees regarding rise in tem-
perature of all of their conductors. It will be noted that the
temperature of the motor fields reached its maximum at 3 a.m..
and from that time steadily decreased, although the work being
done by the motor increased slightly during the test. This de-
crease in temperature is probably due to a slight increase in the
speed of the unit following the high voltage at the bus bars. The
voltage readings of the arc circuits show but slight increase dur-
ing the night, after the number of lamps in circuit was allowed
to remain constant. This increase of voltage is more noticeable
on another type of lamp shown in the next table.

TABLE B.
Test of High-Voltage Arc Circuits.

Time.

No. 2 Circuit.

No. 1 Circuit.

Amperes.

Volts.

Amperes.

Volts.

6-36

65

59OO

6-5

7000

7-0O

6-5

6400

6.6

7300

7-35

6.5

6900

% 6.5

6500

8-00

6-5

7200

6.6

6900

8-30

6.5

7450

6.5

7400

9--OO

6.5

7700

6-5

7900

9-30

6-5

7650

6-5

8350

IO-OO

6-5

7700

6-5

8550

IO-30

6.5

7450

6.5

8600

II-OO

6.5

7350

6-5

8750

II-40

6-5

7I50

6.4

*6500

I2-00

6-5

7I50

6-5

6900

I2-IO

6-5

7100

6-5

6950

♦Machine flashed just before reading was taken.

STREET LIGHTING OF CITIES.

33

Table B gives data obtained from a test of another high-
voltage plant in a neighboring city; column one gives the time,
columns two and three give the amperes and voltage upon one

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Fig a.

Load Ci rvi
Oct 1895

10 In 12 S 4 S 8 10 U.S. 12

s. Showing Original Hypothetical Curve and Present Actual Curve with the U?i of Baiterv
Also Load Curve Nov. (900 5howinc City Liohtibc Load

Fig. 9.

circuit and columns four and five the amperes and voltage on the
other circuit. These were both overhead circuits. The former
contained 92 lamps and the latter no. This last circuit had 5
lamps more than either of the circuits shown in the last table.
3

34 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

These lamps, an hour after they had been put in operation, used
but 64 volts per lamp, including the loss in the line. After they
had been in operation for about five hours, however, the voltage
per lamp had increased to 68 volts and 78 volts, respectively, for
the two circuits, the lower voltage per lamp of one circuit being
accounted for by a number of newly-trimmed lamps upon that
circuit. This characteristic of an arc lamp is a serious drawback
for street lighting, inasmuch as the lights show dim during the
first part of the night, when people are upon the street and the
light is needed, and show up much brighter during the latter
half of the night when the streets are practically deserted, and
when the light is not so essential.

In a paper read before this Club last year I showed the load
carve of the Imperial plant, which I will reproduce in Fig. 9. I
repeat it here for the purpose of showing what a small effect the
city lighting load has upon the total load of the plant. The lower
line gives the preliminary load curve, prepared by the engineers
before the plant was built and submitted in their preliminary re-
port covering the design of the plant. The second line gives the
load upon the plant one year after it had started, and a year and
one month ago. It illustrated the use of the battery at that time,
and attention was called to the large all-night load, the com-
paratively low peak or maximum load and the high average for
the entire twenty-four hours, which is 39.27 per cent, of the maxi-
mum. A year ago the peak of the load was 5600 amperes. The
third or highest curve gives the present load-curve of the plant,
showing the changed use of the battery, which is no longer able
to carry the night load and allow the shutting down of the plant.
It is still available for doing its full load capacity at the peak of
the load, and its use as a balancer and equalizer of pressure is the
same as it was a year ago. The increase in the all-night load is
only partly due to city lighting, the city lighting load being only
about half of the present total all-night load. The dotted curve
shows the load on the plant exclusive of city arc lighting.

The station at present shows a maximum load of over 13,000
amperes, which is more than twice the maximum of thirteen
months ago, which was 5600 amperes. The average load for the
twenty-four hours has increased from 2198 amperes to its present
amount of 6345 amperes, approximately three times as much as
that of a year ago, and greater than the maximum load on the
plant at that time. The load-factor of the plant has increased
from 39.27 per cent, to 47.7 per cent., giving a load-factor that
can be equaled by few, if by any, plants in this country.

WATER POWER BY DIRECT AIR COMPRESSION. 35

WATER POWER BY DIRECT AIR COMPRESSION.

By William 0. Webber, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

[Read before the Society, November 21, 1900.*]

The use of compressed air for power purposes and as a
means for the transmission of power is much older than is usually
conceded. It was used by Smeaton in 1786, by Medhurst in 1810,
by Rennie in 1812, by Vallance in 1818, at the Triger mines of
Challones in 1845, by Cubitt in sinking the piers of the Rochester
bridge in 185 1. Brunei also made a similar use of it at Saltash in
1854. It was also used by Brunei on the Thames Tunnel, by
Barlow on the Thames Subway and in the shaft of the Marie Col-
liery in 1856.

Air has been transmitted for considerable distances and under
a great range of pressures. At the Mont Cenis Tunnel, air was
transmitted to the boring machinery 20,000 feet under a pressure
of 105 pounds per square inch. In the installation at Paris, in 1881,
by M. Popp, the length of the pipes slightly exceeded twenty-four
miles. This plant, as well as the one installed by the same person
in Vienna in 1877, was originally used for the running and regu-
lating of clocks, but it afterward developed into power for work-
ing small motors. In Paris the main is a steel pipe 20 inches in
diameter, and the air, maintained at 90 pounds pressure, transmits
6000 horse power.

At a large compressed-air plant at Offenbach, near Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, air is distributed through 25,000 feet of cast
iron pipe under 90 pounds pressure. At the Portsmouth Dock
Yards, England, air is transmitted through 14,000 feet of pipe,
varying from 3 to 12 inches diameter, under 60 pounds pressure,
and is used to drive forty 7-ton capstans, five 20-ton cranes and
machinery for working seven caissons.

There is also a large compressed-air plant at the Terni Steel
Works in Central Italy. In this plant 1,200,000 cubic feet of air
per day, under 75 pounds pressure, are used to drive a 100-ton
hammer, a 100 and 150-ton crane and numerous engines.

In this country 2,500,000 cubic feet of air per day, at 60 pounds
pressure, delivering 1700 horse power, are used at the Chapin mines
in Michigan. The mains in this plant are 24-inch wrought iron
pipes, one-quarter inch thick. Very successful compressed-air
tramways have been operated for a number of years at Berne,
Switzerland, and at Nantes, France.

*Manuscript received December 31, 1900. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

36 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Mekarski used compressed air for driving tramway cars in

1877.

In all of the above-named uses of compressed air, the com-
pression was produced by steam-actuated mechanical compressors.
The older ones were all simple compressors, Mekarski being the
first to use compound compressors, and he was followed in this
line by Northcote in 1878.

The adaptability of compressed air for various uses is very
great. While electricity supplies power and light very directly, it
cannot be used for heating except at a prohibitive cost. Gas is
used very directly to supply heat, power and light, but is expensive
for heating and power at the prices generally charged. City water
pressure can be used to supply power, and indirectly light, by the
use of a water motor driving a dynamo, but is too expensive for
most purposes. Steam supplies heat and motive power almost
directly, and indirectly light through a dynamo. It is, however,
more expensive than compressed air, and involves more risk and
attention. Compressed air can be used directly as a source of
motive power, ventilation and refrigeration ; also in the operation
of elevators.

We have already mentioned its use in connection with power
hammers, cranes and motors. For drying purposes it is even
more efficient than heat. Compressed air is also largely suscepti-
ble to double uses. For instance, after it has been used cold, or
without pre-heating expansively in a motor to produce power, the
exhaust furnishes an efficient and cheap method of producing re-
frigeration. When pre-heated and then used through a motor
the exhaust is still hot enough to contribute considerably to the
heating of a building.

In the transmission of compressed air over long distances, the
loss of pressure due to friction in pipes of proper sizes, and the loss
due to leakage in properly constructed pipes and joints, are very
small. Velocities of from 30 to 50 feet per second are allowable.
When an air distribution system is introduced into a thickly settled
community, the safety from the air main is much greater than from
a steam main or a water main under pressure, and a leakage or even
the bursting of such a pipe is attended with very much less damage.

Another great advantage in such a case is that power users
require no new plant, and need incur no outlay for motors. Their
present steam engines, with little or no alteration, are admirably
adapted for serving as air motors.

Tests of small motors of from one to two horse power, using
air at the ordinary atmospheric temperature and at 735 pounds per

WATER POWER BY DIRECT AIR COMPRESSION. 37

square inch absolute, exhausting at from 330 to 54°, required a
consumption of 1200 cubic feet of air per brake horse power per
hour. At the Berne tramway the air is compressed to 450 pounds
per square inch. On the average the cars use about 35 pounds of
air per car-mile. This, however, was used in connection with hot
water. In small motors of from one to two horse power, with the
air pre-heated to a temperature of about 1580 and exhausting at
about the freezing point or 320, 850 cubic feet of air per brake horse
power per hour were used.

In some very carefully conducted trials made by Professor
Riedler, using an 80 horse power engine which was actually giving
72 indicated horse power, using air at 80 pounds pressure, heated
to 3200, with' cylinders jacketed with hot air and exhausting at
about 950, about 425 cubic feet of air per brake horse power per
hour were used. This showed an efficiency of about 92 per cent.

Practically all that has been said above refers to air compressed
by the old methods of mechanical compression. We now come to
the subject of air being compressed directly by falling water or
under pressure. Air compressed by the ordinary methods of
mechanical compression contains at least the same amount of
moisture as the surrounding atmosphere from which it was com-
pressed ; and, in parting with the heat necessarily contributed to the
air by the mechanical compression, it is inclined to absorb more
moisture. There is incidentally a considerable loss of energy in
parting with this heat. Air compressed directly by falling water
is kept at the same temperature as this water. It is compressed
isothermally, and the consequent expansion, when used in motors,
produces an almost truly adiabatic expansion line. Tests, however,
have shown that air compressed in this manner contains only one-
sixth of the moisture originally in the surrounding atmosphere from
which it is compressed. This is probably because the moisture in
the bubble of air is pressed or squeezed out to its surface and then
absorbed by the surrounding water. Incidentally there is no loss
of power in parting with any heat, and there is a practical result
which is of more importance, — the hydraulically compressed air
can be expanded down to a temperature much below the freezing
point, while atmospheric air, with the usual amount of moisture,
mechanically compressed, cannot be used at all, owing to the
freezing up of the exhaust passages of the motor in which the
attempt to use it is being made.

During some tests made at Magog in September, 1899, owing
to the conditions under which these tests wyere made, the change in
the humidity in the air was not so great as above stated. The

38 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

moisture in the external air showed 90 per cent, of saturation, and,
after compression, 29 per cent., or a little more than one quarter.
In the Magog tests, using an old 75 horse power Corliss engine,
with air at 53^ pounds gage pressure, with cold air direct from the
compressor at from 66° to 730, and exhausting down to the ex-
tremely low point of 42° below zero, 850 cubic feet of air per brake
horse power per hour were used ; and, with the air pre-heated to
from 2050 to 2950 Farenheit, and exhausting at from 670 to 68°, 620
cubic feet of air per brake horse power per hour were used.

Probably one of the oldest applications of the use of water
power to the wants of man was a form of hydraulic air compressor
which operated as an entrainment apparatus. This was the well-
known water bellows or trompe of the Catalan forges.

This apparatus, briefly described, consisted of a bamboo pole,
disposed at a slight inclination from the perpendicular, into the
upper end of which a stream of water was led, entraining air with it
in its downward passage. The lower end of this bamboo pole was
introduced into a bag made of the skin of some animal, the air be-
ing allowed to escape from the water into the upper part of the
bag, whence it was led by pipes or tuyeres to the forge, the water
being allowed to escape from the lower edge of the bag. From
this original device a great many improvements have been worked
out, and besides this a number of other forms of hydraulic air
compressors, or of compressors using other liquids for com-
pressing air or other gases, have been designed.

Siemens invented an apparatus on the principle of the steam
injector, but the use of this was confined principally to the produc-
tion of a vacuum. It is used to operate the pneumatic dispatch
tubes in London. It has also been used for blast purposes in
Siemens's furnaces and in sugar works.

Another quite ingenious device, Fig. 1, shown in a patent
granted to W. L. Home, consists of two flat plates, A and B, in-
closing between them an air space from which a pipe leads to the
atmosphere. The upper plate A is perforated with conical holes,
the smaller end of each hole being adjacent to the air space between
the two plates. Directly opposite the apertures of the upper plate
A are corresponding conical apertures in the lower plate B, with
the smaller end of the aperture next the air-space, the lower and
larger part of the conical openings being prolonged by tubes C C.
The upper plate is kept under a head of water, and the water jet,
passing across the thin air space referred to, draws in the air
through the large air pipe D, and compresses it through the smaller
orifices.

WATER POWER BY DIRECT AIR COMPRESSION.

39

Another device, using a somewhat similar principle, was in-
vented by M. Romilly. It consists of a conical tube attached to an
air reservoir by its larger end, and having a check valve interposed
in the passage so as to prevent the air from escaping. Water is
then injected into the smaller end of this conical tube through an
ajutage which gives it the form of a liquid vein at a given pressure.
This vein entrains the air with it and causes it to be compressed in
the reservoir.

Fig. i. W. L. Horne.

But all of the apparatus just described did not really employ
the same methods as those used in the old trompe. One of the first
inventions carrying out this idea, Fig. 2, was made by Mr. J. P.
Frizell, of Boston, Mass., a member of this Society. His inven-
tion made use of an inverted siphon having a considerable hori-
zontal run D between the two legs A and B. A stream of water
was led into the upper end of the longer leg A, and at the top of
the horizontal run D between the two legs of the siphon was pro-
vided an enlarged chamber C in which the air separated from the
water. The water was then led off from the lower part of this air
chamber and passed off through the short leg B of the siphon, the
pressure of the air accumulated in the air chamber being there-

40

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

fore due to the height of water maintained in the shorter leg of
the siphon. This application of carrying upward the water, after
the air was separated from it, so as to produce a considerable
pressure upon the air, seems to have been original with Mr.
Frizell, and in this feature his device differs from the old trompe.
Mr. Frizell made two working models of this type of apparatus.
In the first the legs of the siphon were 3 inches in diameter, the
head of water being 25 inches, and an efficiency of 26^ per cent.
was obtained. A larger apparatus was then constructed at the
Falls of St. Anthony, on the Mississippi River, a few miles above

Fig. 2. J. P. Frizell.

St. Paul. The longer leg of the siphon in this plant was 15 inches
by 30 inches and the short leg of the siphon 24 inches by 48 inches
in section. The height of water above the air chamber was 29
feet. The head in feet varied from 0.98 to 5.2, the first head being
just sufficient to cause a flow through the pipes The working
head varied from 2.54 feet to 5.02 feet and the efficiency from 40.4
per cent, to 50.7 per cent., the quantity of water in these cases
varying from 5.92 to 11.89 cubic feet per second.

From his experiments Mr. Frizell estimates that with a shaft 10
feet in diameter, a depth of 120 feet and a fall of 15 feet the ef-
ficiency would be 76 per cent., and that with a head of 30 feet and
a fall of 230 feet the efficiency would be 81 per cent.

WATER POWER BY DIRECT AIR COMPRESSION.

41

Another device, Fig. 3, differing somewhat from that of Mr.
Frizell, was invented by A. Baloche and A. Krahnass in 1885, and
consisted of a siphon B carrying water from an upper to a lower
reservoir, the lower end of the siphon being projected through an
inverted vessel R placed nearly at the bottom of the second reser-
voir. Just beyond the bend of the siphon, and in line with the
vertical axis of its longer leg, an air pipe T projected into the
descending leg of the siphon, thus entraining the air with the de-

Fig. 3. A. Baloche and A. Krahnass.

scending column, which carried it down into the inverted chamber
R, from which the air escaped at the top, while the water passed
out from the bottom into the lower reservoir. This apparatus
produced pressure on the air in the top of the inverted chamber,
due to the height of the water column upon it.

Another device, Fig. 4, patented by Thomas Arthur in 1888,
differs from the last in having a stream of water led directly into
the top of the vertical pipe A. Inserted into the mouth of this pipe
was a double cylindrical cone C forming an annular air passage
between it and the walls of pipe A.

42

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Owing to the increase in the velocity of the water in passing
through the narrow throat of the double cone, air is inhaled through
the pipe D through the annular space mentioned and through per-
forations in the lower cone, and is entrained with the falling water.

Through the down-flow pipe A rises a vertical delivery pipe Z
for the compressed air, having its lower end H enlarged and open
at the bottom. Projecting upward into this enlarged air-delivery
pipe was a water-escape pipe F through which the water passed
after having parted with the air. This escape pipe was in the form

Water II! J Water
Air \Jff

Fig. 4. T. Arthur.

of an inverted siphon and maintained on the air in the delivery
pipe Z a pressure due to the elevation of the water at its discharge
point above the air line in the large end of the delivery pipe.

A number of other patents on apparatus of this type were
issued to Charles H. Taylor, Nos. 543,410, 543,411, 543,412, July
23> J895- His inventions, Fig. 5, consisted principally of a down-
flow passage having an enlarged chamber at the bottom and an
enlarged tank at the top. A series of small air pipes projected
into the mouth of the water inlet from the large chamber at the
upper end of the vertically descending passage, so as to cause a
number of small jets of air to be entrained by the water, Taylor

WATER POWER BY DIRECT AIR COMPRESSION. 43

44 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

seemingly having been the first to introduce the plan of dividing
the air inlets into a multiplicity of smaller apertures evenly dis-
tributed over the area of the water inlet.

Taylor at first seems to have attempted to utilize centrifugal
action in causing the separation of the air from the water in the
larger chamber at the bottom of the compressed column; but he
afterward abandoned this scheme and used, instead, deflector
plates in combination with a gradually enlarging section of the
lower end of the down-flow column in order to decrease the
velocity of the air and water and cause partial separation to take
place. The deflector plates changed the direction of flow of the
water. This was evidently intended to facilitate the escape of the
air.

The latter improvements on this device have been in the method
of introducing the air into the mouth of the downwardly flowing
water column, so as to insure the largest proportion of air being
taken down with the water, and in methods of decreasing the
velocity of the combined air and water at the bottom of the descend-
ing column, causing the water to part more readily with the air, the
water then passing out at the bottom of the enlarged chamber into
an ascending shaft, maintaining upon the air a pressure due to the
height of water in the uptake, the air being led off from the top of
the enlarged chamber by means of a pipe.

The first of these compressors on the Taylor principle was in-
stalled at Magog, Quebec, to furnish power for the print works of
the Dominion Cotton Mills Company. The head of water is 22
feet; the down-flow pipe is 44 inches in diameter, and extends
downward through a vertical shaft 10 square feet in cross section
and 128 feet deep. At the bottom of the shaft the compressor pipe
enters a large tank, 17 feet in diameter and 10 feet high, which is
known as the air chamber and separator.

A series of very careful tests on this plant demonstrated that
with 19.5 feet head, using 4292 cubic feet of water per minute, was
recovered the equivalent of 1148 cubic feet of free air per minute,
which would represent 248 cubic feet of air per minute compressed
to 53.3 pounds pressure, showing that out of a gross water horse
power of 1 58. 1, 1 1 1.7 horse power of effective work in compressing
air was accomplished, giving therefore an efficiency of 71 per cent.

In the tests at Magog we recovered 81 horse power, using an
old Corliss Engine without any changes in the valve gear as a
motor; this would represent a total efficiency of work, recovered
from the falling water, of 51.2 per cent.

WATER POWER BY DIRECT AIR COMPRESSION.

45

When the compressed air was pre-heated to 2670 F. before
being used in the engine, in horse power was recovered, using
115 pounds coke per hour, which would equal about 23 horse
power. The efficiency of work recovered from the falling water
and the fuel burned would be, therefore, about 61^ per cent. On
the basis of Professor Riedler's experiments, requiring only 425
cubic feet of air per brake horse power per hour, when pre-
heated to 3000 F. and used in a hot-air jacketed cylinder, the total
efficiency secured would have been about 87^ per cent.

_^^0M| J ^K^^ TffflllR ^m

t

* :« *-; \\x-5l

.ijyBj

' ?' td£

Fig. 6. Magog.

Compressor Head and Weir.
Blowing Off.

The Air Compressor is

The second compressor on the Taylor principle is located on
Coffee Creek, to the south of Ainsworth, British Columbia. The
Available head of water is 107.5 ^eet- The down-flow pipe is 33
inches in diameter. The shaft is 32 square feet area and 210 feet
deep. The maximum volume of water is 4200 cubic feet per minute
and would represent, at 71 per cent, efficiency, 587 horse power.
This compressor is expected to utilize about 5100 cubic feet of free
air per minute or 734 cubic feet of compressed air at 87 pounds
pressure, and give an air motor horse power of 360 horse power.

46 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

It is possible, however, that this plant may not give as high per-
centages as this, as the water passages are of smaller areas than
those at Magog.

Three other plants are now under construction, — one at Peter-
borough, Ontario ; one at Norwich, Conn., and one in the Cascade
Range, State of Washington. The plant at Peterborough, Ontario,
for the Government of the Dominion of Canada, is to be used in
connection with one of the locks on the Trent Valley Canal, the
chief dimensions being as follows : Head of water, 14 feet ; gage
pressure, 25 pounds; diameter of compressor pipe, 18 inches;
diameter of shaft, 42 inches ; depth below tailrace, 64 feet.

The whole plant is inclosed in the masonry wall of the lock,
the usual rock chamber in the bottom of the shaft being built in
concrete and only a few feet below the lower water level of the lock.
At Norwich, Conn., at what is known as the Tunnel Privilege
on the Quinebaug River, the plant will give 1365 H. P. of air at a
pressure of 85 pounds per square inch. The head of water is 18^
feet; diameter of shaft, 24 feet; diameter of compressor pipe, 13
feet ; depth of the shaft, 208 feet.

The air will be transmitted a distance of four miles with a loss
in transmission not exceeding 2 per cent., through 16-inch pipe,
which will be laid with flanged joints and rubber gaskets.

The plant which is being constructed in one of the canyons of
the Cascade Range of mountains in the State of Washington will
give 200 H. P. of air at a pressure of 85 pounds per square inch.
Head of water, 45 feet.

There is no shaft, as the apparatus is constructed against the
vertical walls of the canyon. The diameter of the compressor pipe
is 3 feet. The diameter of the up-flow pipe is 4 feet 9^ inches.
The capacity of the plant is based on 2000 miners' inches of water,
equal to 53.2 cubic feet per second. The total height of this
apparatus is about 260 feet.

Besides what is now known as the Taylor type of compressor,
some forms of hydraulic ram compressors were designed by Som-
meiler and also by Mr. H. D. Pearsall. These operated in a nearly
similar manner to the hydraulic ram and gave an efficiency of 80
per cent.

A MODERN AMERICAN BLAST FURNACE. 47

A MODERN AMERICAN BLAST FURNACE— ITS CON-
STRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT.*

By Arthur C. Johnston, M.E., Member of the Civil Engineers' Club of

Cleveland.

[Read before the Club, November 27, iooo.f]

In an article written in 1896, entitled "Forty Years of Progress
in the Pig Iron Industry," John Birkinbine says : "A retrospect of
four decades will show that this interval covers most of the
advances in the production of pig iron made in the United States,
and also those introduced in European countries, for, although the
use of mineral fuel, the application of heated blast and the employ-
ment of steam blowing machinery were not uncommon features of
smelting plants, the increased production of pig iron up to 1855 was
due chiefly to an augmented number of blast furnaces and enlarged
dimensions of stacks. But what was considered at that time a
large furnace would now rank as small, while the quantity of metal
obtained in a year from the greatest producers of forty years ago
was equaled by the monthly output of a number of modern fur-
naces in 1895."

The relative proportions of representative furnaces, from 1855
to 1900, are well shown in Fig. 1.

Much has been written about the increasing size and output of
furnaces generally, but, on account of the rapidity of development,
very little concerning their actual construction and the means em-
ployed for bringing about the increased production. The object of
this paper is to describe the mechanical construction of a modern
furnace, its equipment and the appliances for concentrating and
handling the enormous amount of material that is required to make
600 tons of iron per twenty- four hours in a single stack; and to

*Note. — Owing to the keen competition of commercial interests in the iron
and steel industry in this country, great care has been taken to eliminate from
this paper anything that would seriously affect the interests of the company
owning the furnaces herein described. It is on this account that the paper
is confined to a description — from the standpoint of a blast furnace engineer —
of the mechanical construction of a complete modern furnace plant, the object
being to show thereby the great advances that have been made in blast furnace
construction and equipment during the last ten years, and to give an adequate
idea of the enormous oossibilities of the American iron and steel industry,
which has at its command such producers as these. The subjects of ore and
coke supply, the burdening and grades of ore used, the fuel consumption and
the extent and cost of output have been carefully avoided, otherwise the
paper could have been made much more interesting and valuable.

fManuscript received December 8, 1900. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

48

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

draw some conclusions based on the operation of such a furnace,
taking as a concrete example the plant of the Lorain Steel Company,
at Lorain, Ohio. It is regretted that it will not be possible, within
the limits of this paper, to introduce other furnaces for the sake of
comparison, but it is hoped that the record of experience in the
operation of the Lorain furnaces — two of the largest in the world —
will be of value in the design of perhaps still greater iron producers.
The plant mentioned was built in 1899, and consists of two
stacks, each 100 feet high from hearth level to furnace platform,

^Li, 1

r

ft '•■

^il^fc. lL

f- i 0 1

- -f !■:

, EffflT

1 JMfc -nflc . r.TXIV HStHht

>*•■■

r- -' •.<",;' •' •'**

■

22 feet in diameter at the bosh and 14 feet at the hearth. By refer-
ence to Figs. 2, 3 and 4 it will be seen that they are arranged on
the American system, which places two furnaces in a group, there
being four heating stoves for each furnace and a boiler house and
engine house common to both. The plant is arranged to be capable
of extension by adding to the engine and boiler houses, making
them of sufficient capacity for another similar group of two fur-
naces. Sections showing the lines and construction of the furnaces
themselves are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. It will be seen that there
is a slight difference between the lines of furnace No. 1 and those
of No. 2.

The distinctive feature of these furnaces is the great depth of
the hearth jacket, and the low level to which the furnace columns

A MODERN AMERICAN BLAST FURNACE. 49

are carried in consequence. The hearth jacket itself is also of
novel design. It consists of two series of segmental steel castings,
held together by bolts and buckstays, with rust joints at the abutting
edges of the different segments. Between the jacket and the
masonry there is inclosed a complete ring of individual vertical
pipes, intended to serve the double purpose of a cooling system and
a means of relieving the jacket of excessive bursting strains, due
to the expansion of the contained furnace bottom, by the partial
collapse of the pipes. The intention was to have the cooling water
for the jacket discharged into the annular space at the top of the
same and to carry it downward through the pipes from which it
would seek its level within the wall surrounding the jacket, whence
it would be led off through a waste pipe placed at the desired level.
In accordance with modern practice, the tuyeres are spaced as
closely as possible, there being sixteen 6-inch tuyeres in the circle.
A special feature is the great number of cooling plates. As will be
seen in Fig. 7, there are twelve rings of bronze coolers, two of
which are below the tuyeres and three additional rings of cast iron
coolers above the bronze plates. Fig. 8 shows clearly the construc-
tion of the coolers with their socket plates, and Fig. 9 the details of
the tuyeres. There are, in all, 277 bronze and 48 cast iron coolers
in each furnace. The stock lines are protected by twelve rings of
cast iron segments built into the brickwork. The mantels are built
of f-inch steel plate, with two courses of -|-inch plate at the bottom
and one at the top. The gases generated in the stacks are led off
through two downcomers, each 73 inches in diameter and brick-
lined to 63 inches inside diameter. The general outline of these
downcomers may be seen in the general plan of the furnaces, Fig. 4,
and it will be observed that, owing to the steep angle at which they
are carried up, it is practically impossible for dust to lodge in them
at any point, which is a very important consideration. As a matter
of fact, when the furnaces were blown out, after a year's run, these
pipes were found to be as clean as a gun barrel. In the dust-
catcher (Fig. 10) the direction of motion of the descending gases
is so suddenly changed upward that ample opportunity is given for
the precipitation of the dust, which can then be dropped into rail-
way cars standing on the track which runs through the tunnel
under the foundations.

The gases are further cleansed by being precipitated against
the surface of a body of water in the gas washer (Fig. 11). From
the washer the gases are led into the gas main. A by-pass, how-
ever, is arranged whereby the washer can be cut out of the system.
This is accomplished by making two connections direct from the
[4]

So

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

dust-catcher to the gas main, controlled by 56-inch cut-off valves,
which are fitted with water-cooled seats and discs. The connec-
tions from the dust-catcher to the washer, and from the washer to
the gas main, are controlled by cut-off valves of a different type
(Fig. 12). In Fig. 13 are shown the various connections between
the downcomer and the gas main.

The gas main is a steel shell 85 inches in diameter and brick-
lined to 75 inches, and it extends along the front of the eight
stoves, having a downward connection to the burner at each of
them. Here again precautions are taken to precipitate the dust

carried over by the gas ; also in the burner itself there is still another
dust-catching chamber. The stove burner is 18 inches in diameter,
with a 6-inch air supply pipe (Fig. 14), and the opening for it in
the stove is 22 inches in diameter.

Furnace gases are slow in burning, and for economical results
a long combustion chamber of ample size must be provided. By
reference to the section through the stoves (Fig. 15) it will be seen
that the combustion chamber is carried up to the top, and that the
burnt gases descend through the rectangular passages formed by
the stove bricks, which are heated thereby until they reach the
desired temperature. Each stove has a heating surface of 34,000
square feet. The gases are passed from the stoves to the chimney

A MODERN AMERICAN BLAST FURNACE. 51

through a 50-inch valve with air-cooled disc and water-cooled
seat ; the air is brought down through the stem, as shown in Fig. 16.
The chimney is 10 feet in diameter and 225 feet high, and brick-
lined to the top (Fig. 17).

In designing these furnaces it was figured that each of them
would require from 45,000 to 50,000 cubic feet of air per minute,
measured by piston displacement, when making 600 tons of iron
each in twenty-four hours. To supply this volume the engine
house is equipped with five horizontal compound blowing engines,
with steam cylinders 44 and 84 inches in diameter, and two air cylin-
ders 84 inches in diameter, all having a common stroke of 66 inches.
The general design of these is shown in Fig. 18. The fifth engine
is intended for a reserve, to be thrown on either pair of furnaces in
the contemplated extension. They are designed to be capable of
delivering air at a maximum pressure of 30 pounds per square inch,
although the average blast pressure is only about 14 pounds. Any
engine can be connected with either furnace at any time, as the two
cold-blast mains run parallel with one another over the blowing
cylinders, and each main has a connection with a shut-off valve to
each cylinder.

The cold blast mains are 48 inches in diameter, and are rolled
from ^-inch plate. Each is equipped with a 48-inch snort valve,
which in closing opens a 14^-inch relief valve mounted on the same
frame, and thus prevents a dangerous pressure from accumulating
in the main when the blast is suddenly shut off from the furnace.
In addition, there are three 8-inch safety valves on each pipe.
Thirty-inch connections are made from the mains to the stoves
(Fig. 19), and the valves in these branches have in their seats a
smaller valve which opens first automatically and relieves the pres-
sure, an arrangement which enables the main valve to be opened
more easily.

The cold air from the blast mains passes into the stoves and up
through the checker bricks, which have been previously heated by
the burning furnace gases, and down through the combustion cham-
ber— the gas burner having been withdrawn and its door and
chimney valve closed — into the hot-blast main through a 32-inch
hot-blast valve (Fig. 20). By referring again to Fig. 19 these
connections will be readily traced. The hot-blast mains are 69
inches in diameter, and double brick-lined to 50 inches inside
diameter. Before connecting with the bustle pipes, the hot-blast
mains divide and join them with two connections in order to better
equalize the pressure around the complete circle. From the bustle
pipes the hot blast is led to the tuyeres, and into the furnaces

52 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

through the tuyere stocks. Two 16-inch drop valves are placed on
the bustle pipe. These open automatically when the blast pressure
is shut off, and air is admitted instead of drawing dangerous gases
back through the tuyeres from the furnace; these also close auto-
matically when the blast is turned on. Explosion doors are pro-
vided at the furnace top, and wherever possible in all pipes and
chambers carrying gas.

For handling the stock at these furnaces an entirely new sys-
tem is in use. The stock bins are placed underground (Fig. 21).
There are five stock bin cars, with suspended weighing hoppers,
for the two furnaces. The bins are 725 feet in length, and the ore,
limestone and coke are delivered to the furnace skip car by the
weighing cars, which draw their supply from the chutes in the
bottom of the bins. The skip then carries the charges up the in-
cline and delivers them at the furnace top, as shown in Fig. 22.

The stock bin cars are driven by two railway motors, and the
door in the bottom of the suspended hopper is opened and closed
by an air cylinder, the pressure being supplied by an electrically-
driven air-pump carried on the car. The operator can weigh all
charges from the car platform. The skip has a capacity of 240
cubic feet, and is hoisted, by means of four i^-inch cables, by a pair
of 14 x 16-inch engines geared 6.5 to 1 to a 72-inch drum. To
complete a single "charge" the skip makes four trips, — taking first
two loads of coke and then two loads of ore and limestone mixed.
Two loads of coke, or of limestone and ore, are kept always on the
bell in order to act as a seal and to keeo it cool. When making 600
tons of iron in twenty-four hours the skip delivers ninety "charges,"
making 360 trips to the furnace top, an average of a return trip
every four minutes. The skip is counterweighted, so that the
engine does work both in raising and in lowering it.

For pumping water for the cooling plates there are two com-
pound, fly-wheel Holly pumps, each having two double-acting
water plungers 22 inches in diameter, with a stroke of 28 inches.
These are capable of delivering 7,000,000 U. S. gallons of water
per twenty-four hours each. As a reserve there is also a duplex
pump with two double-acting water plungers, 14 inches in diameter
and 10 inches stroke. All these pumps deliver water to a stand
pipe 12 feet in diameter and 150 feet high. The water passes
through from three to four cooling plates before being discharged
into the waste troughs. Arrangement is made also whereby water
from the boiler-feed system can be sent through the cooling plates,
in order to force out deposits of sediment by means of the in-
creased pressure. Brass ball-and-socket unions are used through-
out the piping for the cooling system.

A MODERN AMERICAN BLAST FURNACE. 53

The boiler house is equipped with 24 vertical water tube
boilers, each of 250 horse power ; so arranged as to use either fur-
nace gas or coal as fuel. A cross-section of the boiler house is
shown in Fig. 23, as is also the type of boilers used. These boilers
are admirably adapted for furnace gas as fuel, as, on account of
their great height, there is sufficient time to effect the complete
combustion of the slow-burning gases. The gas main from the
furnaces is extended into the boiler house, and has a connection to
the burner in front of each grate.

With the increasing output from single furnaces, it was soon
found to be practically impossible to handle the pig iron quickly
enough when cast in sand beds in the ordinary manner; and this
was the first cause of the development of the pig casting machine,
which, with the mixer or storage tank, is one of the most important
of recent inventions in connection with the blast furnace. Fig. 24
gives a general idea of the form of the machine. It consists of
two endless chains carrying molds or chills of pressed steel, the
details of which are shown in Fig. 25. In operation the machine
is beautifully simple. The molten iron is poured from the ladle
into a trough terminating in two spouts, from which it runs into
the chills. The chain then drops down under the surface of the
water contained in the tank, and travels under water for a distance
of about 100 feet. It then turns upward, and as it ascends the
incline the pigs are sprayed with cold water from a spray pipe ; and
by the time they reach the head of the machine they are sufficiently
cooled to be loaded on cars which stand on the loading track.
They may, as an alternative, be delivered by the machine to a con-
veyor, which in turn delivers them to the stock piles for use in the
cupolas. The chains travel at the rate of 20 feet per minute, and
the chills are spaced 12 inches center to center, so that each chain
delivers 20 pigs per minute, weighing on the average no pounds
each ; and thus it will be understood how very efficient this machine
is and what a great saving of labor it represents. Instead of clay
washing the molds to prevent the iron from fusing with them, they
are smoked by two smoke furnaces just before they pass over the
tail sprockets. A set of chills will, under ordinary circumstances,
last for nine months or a year. In cold weather, however, it is
necessary to heat the water in the tanks, otherwise the repeated
sudden and violent difference of temperature soon cracks the chills.
The ladles are tipped by an electric ladle-tipping machine, from the
spindle of which a connection is made with the hand wheel on the
ladle car. Provision is made for casting in sandbeds at the fur-
naces, using the space inclosed by the retaining walls between the

54 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

two stacks and opposite the stoves ; but this is done only in case of
accident to the casting equipment.

Fifteen-ton ladle cars (Fig. 26) are used to convey the molten
iron from the furnaces to the pig-casting machine. By referring
again to the general plan it will be seen that these stand in a row on
the hot-metal track which runs along the front wall inclosing the
furnace foundations, and that the iron runners from the tapping
holes terminate in spouts at a sufficient elevation to allow the iron
to pour into the ladles. Similarly, the slag runners have spouts
projecting over the cinder track, which is parallel to the end retain-
ing wall. The cinder ladles (Fig. 27) are of 200 cubic feet capacity,
and have removable cast iron linings, which can be renewed when
worn out. The furnaces are tapped six times per day each, draw-
ing off 100 tons of iron at each cast when working at their full
capacity. The tapping hole is stopped up after the cast by means
of a steam tapping-hole gun, which is shown in Fig. 28, as is also
its method of use. It is suspended from a small jib crane attached
to one of the furnace columns, and can be swung out of the way
when not in use.

When the iron from the furnaces is to be used direct in the
steel mill without remelting, the ladle cars containing the molten
metal are taken to the mixer building, which contains a large mixer
or storage tank which is capable of holding 300 tons of molten
iron, and the general design of which is shown in Fig. 29. Here
the ladles are lifted off the cars by an overhead electric traveling
crane, and the iron is poured into the tank, which serves the double
purpose of a reservoir from which the steel works can draw their
supply and also of insuring a very much more uniform grade of
iron, since all casts are mixed together. The mixer itself can be
tilted by hydraulic cylinders to pour the iron into the steel works
ladle. The iron is kept from chilling by means of fuel-oil burners
inserted in the doors placed on the center of rotation and in the
pouring spout.

Furnace No. 1 was put in blast July 5, 1899, and blown out
July 14, 1900; furnace No. 2 was blown in August 23, 1899, and
put out of blast July 19, 1900. During these periods No. 1 made
162,687 tons °f iron, and No. 2 made 132,290 tons. They were
seldom worked to their full capacity. Figs. 30 and 31 respectively
show the lines of the furnace walls obtained by actual measurement
immediately after cooling off ; measurements were taken at four
points of the compass, as indicated in the figures. It will be seen
that the diameter of the bosh has increased considerably for the
short blast ; bronze plates in place of the cast iron coolers would

A MODERN AMERICAN BLAST FURNACE. 55

probably have held the lines better at this point, and several new
furnaces are being so equipped. The cast iron rings protecting the
stock lines were found to be badly warped inward ; in many cases
they had drawn the brickwork with them. This was probably
caused by the high temperature at the furnace top when blowing
out. However, it is very doubtful as to whether these rings are
of any practical value. If they are used at all, they should be made
light enough to prevent their warping from drawing the brickwork.
There is a good deal of wear on the stock lines, as will be realized
by referring to Fig. 32, which shows the profiles of stock as de-
livered by the bell ; but with unprotected walls this would be evenly
distributed all the way round, and the movements of the stock would
probably be more regular on account of having no projections on
the walls. The action of the bell and seal were very satisfactory.

The operators' houses were originally placed over the incline
on each furnace top, which necessitated keeping two men in each
house on account of danger from escaping gases, but later a single
house was placed on the center of the stove platform, from which
the bell apparatus for both furnaces was operated with much less
expense and greater immunity from danger. The furnace top is
equipped with six explosion doors placed directly under the plat-
form. This proved to be a serious defect, as whenever gas leaking
from these became ignited the mantel and platform were often badly
warped by the heat; and in one instance the frame carrying the
incline was also badly bent. This demonstrates the necessity of
carrying the explosion-door frames out from the furnace clear of
everything. The joints of these doors were originally made as
shown in Fig. 33, a, but after the furnaces were blown out they
were changed as shown in Fig. 33, b. The surfaces in this case
were machined, and the door and frame brick-lined. The value of
asbestos packing for doors that open frequently is very doubtful,
as it soon becomes dry, hard and lifeless, which makes the preven-
tion of leakage impossible. In another of the large furnaces
recently built in this country the joints of the furnace-top explosion-
doors were simply plain, flat, machined surfaces.

The cooling system of the hearth jacket was soon rendered in-
effective by the stopping up of the pipes, due to leakages and small
breakouts of slag from the bosh walls, which made it necessary to
spray water on the outside of the jacket. The depth of the jacket
is also unnecessarily great, and perhaps the only advantage of this
type of jacket is that a section can be replaced when damaged by a
breakout or other cause. The average amount of cooling water
used for both furnaces was about 7,000,000 U. S. gallons per

56 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

twenty-four hours. This includes that used in the furnace-cooling
system, and in the seats and discs of all water-cooled valves. The
average rise in temperature of the water was 10.50 F. From these
figures we may arrive at a very close approximation of the amount
of heat carried away by the water. A complete system of cast iron
runners for the hot metal was originally installed, but this was
soon found to be useless and was dispensed with except at the
spouts. There is a great difference of opinion in regard to the use
of cooling plates below the tuyeres ; many claim that the tendency to
chill the iron is too great, but it may be said that they were used
with very satisfactory results in these stacks.

It is remarkable to what a small extent furnace designers have
been guided by experience in the construction of heating stoves.
Very many of the largest furnace plants have been badly crippled
for long periods of time in order to allow the stoves to be recon-
structed. The points of weakness are principally found in the
plates forming the lower courses, and in the weakness of the stove
fittings riveted to the shell. The plates of the bottom course in the
Lorain stoves were -£ inch thick, and many of these were badly
cracked soon after the furnaces were put in blast. It will be seen,
by referring to Fig. 19, that all the pipe connections are made at the
bottom, and that cutting away so much of the plate makes it very
weak. For a stove of this size, therefore, a plate not less than J
inches thick should be used. The flanges of castings, riveted to the
stove shells, were about 1^ inches thick, of cast iron. Many of.
these were also broken by the heat — especially the gas opening
door — which caused bad and annoying leaks. These fittings were
replaced by heavy steel castings, and no further trouble was experi-
enced. Fig. 34 shows a gas opening door that has been very satis-
factory. It will be noticed that the joint is of the spherical type,
and that the door itself is brick-lined, which is the only sure way of
preventing it from warping. The stove gas burner was originally
designed 22 inches in diameter, with a 10-inch air-supply pipe, and
the opening in the stove was made 28 inches in diameter. This
burner was found to use too much gas, so that there was not suffi-
cient for the boilers. It was modified to the dimensions shown
with very satisfactory results.

The hot-blast valve (Fig. 20) is much heavier than the one
originally used. The lighter valves were a great source of trouble,
and in replacing them all the cast iron rings riveted to the shells
were found to be cracked. All the castings, except the bronze
water-cooled seats in the later valve, were of steel. On account of
the hot-blast valve being opened and closed so frequently, and its

A MODERN AMERICAN BLAST FURNACE. 57

consequently greater liability to get out of order, another shut-off
valve should be inserted between it and the hot-blast main ; other-
wise a crippled hot-blast valve cripples the furnace, since no pres-
sure can be carried in the hot-blast main. The longer branch made
necessary by the extra valve is also of great advantage, in that more
freedom is allowed for the expansion of the main.

The blast temperature could be easily raised to 12000 or
13000 F. with these stoves. With large percentages of soft ores in
the burden, however, it is found that a high-blast temperature
causes a high-blast pressure. A 15-inch mixing pipe, connecting
the cold- and hot-blast mains, was often found to be too small to
reduce the hot-blast temperature by the desired amount, and a
larger connection had to be made. An automatic controlling
device, used with great success at another of the large furnace
plants, was also contemplated. This consists of placing in the
mixing pipe a butterfly valve, which is electrically controlled from
the pyrometer, to keep the temperature of the blast within certain
limits. The power necessary to move the valve is supplied by the
blast pressure. At the plant mentioned it was found to be possible
to keep the temperature of the hot blast within 50 above or below
that desired.

One of the greatest sources of trouble at these furnaces was
the "whipping" of the cold-blast main caused by the pulsations of
the engines. This is an annoyance to which too little attention has
been paid at many furnace plants, especially when it is considered
how easily it can be avoided. The mistake is often made of trying
to hold the pipe against these pulsations by strapping it to some
solid foundation, but this can result only in loosening the rivets and
causing leaks. All that is necessary is to provide a receiver of suffi-
cient capacity to break up the column of air and absorb the pulsa-
tions.

The commercial efficiency of a furnace depends primarily upon
the cost of delivering the raw materials of ore, limestone and coke
at the furnace top, and of getting rid of its product as pig or molten
iron. This plant is admirably situated with respect to its ore sup-
ply, for the reason that the ore is unloaded from vessels* directly to
the stock piles without reshipment by rail. From the stock piles
it is loaded by steam shovels into special pressed steel hopper-

*The dock machinery for unloading ore from vessels was fully described
in a previous paper read by the author before this Club, and published in the
Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies, January, 1900, Vol.
24, page 1, and in an article in Cassier's Magazine, September, 1900, Vol. 18,
page 355-

58 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

bottom cars of 50 tons capacity, similar to the standard steel railway-
cars, but much shorter. These cars are then brought to the stock
bins, and their contents are dropped through the hoppers, ready
for use in the furnaces. Placing the stock bins underground has
the advantage that no trestle with heavy grade approaches is re-
quired, but it is very doubtful whether the great cost of construc-
tion and maintenance is fully warranted on this account, as in cold
weather the ore seems to freeze in them as readily as when placed
in elevated bins. Limestone and coke are received by rail, and the
coke is stocked by means of a traveling cantilever crane operating a
grab bucket.

The plan of the furnace yard is shown in Fig. 35. All the
tracks are of standard gauge, and the sharpest curve is of 461 feet
radius. The hot-metal ladle car has a rigid wheel base of 7 feet 6
inches, and the 461-foot curve has been found by experience to be
about as sharp as it can round. It is very important to have the
tracks carrying hot metal as free from curves, grades and other
complications as possible, as a ladle full of molten metal off the
track is a very serious matter. It will be noticed, by reference to
Fig. 26, that the ladle cars for hot metal are equipped with hand-
tilting gear. This is certainly an unnecessary expense and compli-
cation for a modern furnace equipment. Wherever the ladle must
be tipped — namely at the pig-casting machine, the mixer and in the
ladle repair house — there are cranes at hand to do this, and the
hand gear is a drawback rather than a help. Especially is this so
at the mixer, where the ladles are lifted off the car and replaced
thereon after pouring. A much more satisfactory ladle car would
be one mounted on a pair of swiveling trucks, with simply the
necessary supports to receive the ladle trunnions and a lock to pre-
vent the ladle from tipping while in transit. A satisfactory ladle is
one of the most necessary adjuncts to a modern furnace equipment.

■ ■Q. <^»

V

-A MODERN AMERICAN BLAST FURNACE. PLATE 4.

FIG. 20. 32" HOT-BLAST VALVE

IS.

... 18. 44"X84'X84"X66"

. -,. . ..

ffl®^

OBITUARY. 59

OBITUARY.

George W. Percy.

By the sudden and lamentable death of our highly esteemed
President, on Friday, December 14, 1900, the Technical Society,
and indeed the entire community, sustained an irreparable loss.

George Washington Percy was born at Bath, in the State of
Maine, on July 5, 1847, his early youth being spent amid agricul-
tural surroundings. He received his education as a boy at the
Kent's Hill Academy, in his native State. It was during the
progress of the Civil War that he found employment in the mer-
cantile marine of this country. At this time he made a voyage to
Europe, and also visited other countries.

Endowed with a natural aptitude for mechanical and mathe-
matical pursuits, he decided about this time to study architecture,
with a view to adopting it as his life profession. How wisely his
choice was made is exemplified by the many structures which will
stand for ages as monuments of his professional skill and intelli-
gence.

His technical education was commenced in the office of Mr.
Fassett, of Portland, Maine, and for some years his time was spent
in faithful and painstaking study in qualifying himself for practic-
ing the profession of his choice. Subsequently Mr. Percy entered
the office of Bradley & Winslow, architects, of Boston, Massachu-
setts, and while there superintended several important works.

Coming to California in 1869, he settled in Stockton, returning
to the East in September, 1871, immediately after the great Chicago
fire, in which city he did some heavy work during the rebuilding
operations, after which we once again find him located in Boston.
Among other works with which Mr. Percy was associated in this
latter city is the Equitable Life Insurance Building, a typical
example of the class of work in which he took a special interest.

Returning once more to California, in 1876, and locating in
San Francisco, still full of youth and energy, he immediately com-
menced to build up a successful and steadily increasing practice.
Numerous important buildings in San Francisco and throughout
the Pacific coast will testify for many generations to his profes-
sional ability and constructive knowledge. It is perhaps unneces-
sary to do more than mention the following as being among the
more important of Mr. Percy's works : Stockton Insane Asylum,
Stanford University library and assembly hall, girl's dormitory,
Stanford University, Academy of Sciences Building, Market, near

60 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Fifth street; Alameda city hall, Nevada State University, Reno,
Nevada ; Episcopal church, Stockton ; Alvinza Hayward residence,
San Mateo; Leland Stanford, Jr., museum, Palo Alto; Crassley
dome and professors' homes, Mt. Hamilton; Methodist Episcopal
church business building, Alameda ; California School of Mechani-
cal Arts, Sixteenth and Utah streets ; San Joaquin county alms-
house ; De Fremery block, Oakland ; children's house and play-
ground and other buildings in G. G. Park; Strathmore apartment
house, Larkin street; First Unitarian church, Geary and Franklin
streets ; Golden Gate Park panorama, Strawberry Hill ; City Front
Stables, Clay, near East street ; John Benson office building, Leides-
dorff and Pine streets ; Hobart Building, Post street ; the "Hobart"
vault, Cypress Lawn Cemetery; Hoit's School, Menlo Park; the
Bourn tomb, Laurel Hill Cemetery ; Wells Fargo Building, Mission
and Second streets; Alexander Young business block, Honolulu;
Hayward Building, California and Montgomery streets.

In 1 88 1 Mr. Percy traveled in Europe for pleasure and to
study ancient and modern work, being especially interested in the
archaeological remains of Rome of all ages. Indeed, his continued
study and interest regarding ancient Rome in all its phases was
maintained to the last, and probably few persons were better in-
formed than he was concerning the materials and constructive
methods of the Romans.

In addition to filling the presidential chair of the Technical
Society, in which he took the warmest interest, Mr. Percy was an
active associate member of the American Institute of Architects;
also a trustee of the San Francisco chapter, American Institute of
Architects, and also a member of the Pacific Lodge of Free and
Accepted Masons. He was a member of the Berkeley Literary and
Professional Club ; also of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
Coast, and was an amateur astronomer of no small ability. He
was the author of many instructive technical papers, which he read
before the societies in which he took so deep an interest. His
interest in young students of architecture was often manifested,
many of whom applied to him for advice and assistance in their
studies, and never in vain. His skill and experience has also been
frequently sought in consultations involving questions concerning
architecture and construction. Among many such cases may be
mentioned the fact that he was invited to act as consulting architect
in connection with the new Union Depot and ferry building of this
city. Indeed, it may justly be said of him that he was at the very
zenith of a successful career, and that he not only occupied a high
and honorable position among the members of his own profession,

OBITUARY. 61

but also enjoyed the absolute and perfect confidence of his many
clients.

Among contractors and business men with whom he was
brought into contact in the construction of his buildings he was
most highly respected, and invariably regarded by them as being
absolutely fair and just in his requirements, dispensing equal jus-
tice to contractors and owners alike without fear and without favor.

A widow and four children — two sons and two daughters — are
left to mourn the loss of a devoted husband and a loving father.

Mr. Percy possessed an exceedingly strong personality. His
wide capability, his sterling integrity and earnestness and, above
all, his absolute thoroughness were apparent in everything he
undertook. These moral qualities and the knowledge that he was
in every sense a manly man, as well as a genial gentleman, will ever
be associated with the memory of our late fellow-member and
friend.

G. Alexander Wright, Committee.

62 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Articles of Association.

The following Articles of Association were adopted at a meeting held in
Chicago, December 4, 1880. At this meeting there were present representa-
tives of the

Western Society of Engineers,
Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland,
Engineers' Club of St. Louis,
and the

Boston Society of Civil Engineers
was represented by letter.

For the purpose of securing the benefits of closer union and the
advancement of mutual interests, the engineering societies and clubs
hereunto subscribing have agreed to the following

ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION.

ARTICLE I.

NAME AND OBJECT.

The name of this Association shall be "The Association of Engineer-
ing Societies." Its primary object shall be to secure a joint publication of
the papers and the transactions of the participating Societies.

ARTICLE II.

ORGANIZATION.

Section i. The affairs of the Association shall be conducted by a Board
of Managers under such rules and by-laws as they may determine, subject to
the specific conditions of these articles. The Board shall consist of one repre-
sentative from each Society of one hundred members or less, with one ad-
ditional representative for each additional one hundred members, or fraction
thereof over fifty. The members of the Board shall be appointed as each
Society shall decide, and shall hold office until their successors are chosen.

Sec. 2. The officers of the Board shall be a Chairman and Secretary, the
latter of whom may or may not be himself a member of the Board.

ARTICLE III.

DUTIES OF OFFICERS.

Section i. The Chairman, in addition to his ordinary duties, shall
countersign all bills and vouchers before payment and present an annual re-
port of the transactions of the Board ; which report, together with a synopsis
of the other general transactions of the Board of interest to members, shall be
published in the Journal of the Association.

Sec. 2. The Secretary shall be the active business agent of the Board
and shall be appointed and removed at its pleasure. He shall receive a com-

ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION. 63

pensation for his services to be fixed from time to time by a two-thirds vote.
He shall receive and take care of all manuscript copy and prepare it for the
press, and attend to the forwarding of proof sheets and the proper printing
and mailing of the publications. He shall have power, with the approval of
any one member of the Board, to return manuscript to the author for correc-
tion if in bad condition, illegible or otherwise conspicuously deficient or unfit
for publication. He shall certify to the correctness of all bills before trans-
mitting them to the Chairman for counter-signature He shall receive all
fees and moneys paid to the Association and hold the same under such rules
a~ the Board shall prescribe.

ARTICLE IV.

PUBLICATIONS.

Section i. Each Society shall decide for itself what papers and transac-
tions of its own it desires to have published and shall forward the same to
the Secretary.

Sec. 2. Each Society shall notify the Secretary of the minimum number
of copies of the joint publications which it desires to receive, and shall fur-
nish a mailing-list for the same from time to time. Copies ordered by any
Society may be used as it shall see fit. Payments by each Society shall in
general be in proportion to the number of copies ordered, subject to such
modification of the same as the Board of Managers may decide, by a two-
thirds vote, to be more equitable. Assessments shall be quarterly in advance,
or otherwise, as directed by the Board.

Sec. 3. The publications of the Association shall be open to public sub-
scription and sale, and advertisements of an appropriate character shall be
received, under regulations to be fixed by the Board.

Sec. 4. The Board shall have authority to print with the joint publica-
tions such abstracts and translations from scientific and professional journals
and society transactions as may be deemed of general interest and value.

ARTICLE V.

CONDITIONS OF PARTICIPATION.

Section i. Any Society of Engineers may become a member of this
A-sociation by a majority vote of the Board of Managers, upon payment to
the Secretary of an entrance fee of fifty cents for each active member, and
certifying that these Articles of Association have been duly accepted by it.
Other technical organizations may be admitted by a two-thirds vote of the
Board, and payment and subscription as above.

Sec. 2. Any Society may withdraw from this Association at the end of
any fiscal year by giving three months' notice of such intention, and shall
then be entitled to its fair proportion of any surplus in the treasury, or be
responsible for its fair proportion of any deficit.

Sec. 3. Any Society may, at the pleasure of the Board, be excluded from
this Association for non-payment of dues after thirty days' notice from the
Secretary that such payment is due.

ARTICLE VI.

amendments.
These articles may be amended by a majority vote of the Board of
Managers, and subsequent approval by two-thirds of the participating So-
cieties.

64 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

ARTICLE VII.

TIME OF GOING INTO EFFECT.

These articles shall go into effect whenever they shall shall have been
ratified by three Societies, and members of the Board of Managers appointed.
The Board shall then proceed to organize, and the entrance fee of fifty cents
per member shall then become payable.

These articles were adopted by the several Societies upon the following
dates :

Engineers' Club of St. Louis, January 5, 1881.
Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland, January 8, 1881.
Boston Society of Civil Engineers, January 19, 1881.
Western Society of Engineers, April 5, 1881.
The Board of Managers was organized at Cleveland, January 11, 1881.
The following Societies have since certified their acceptance of the arti-
cles, and have become members of the Association of Engineering Societies :
Engineers' Club of Minneapolis, July, 1884.
Civil Engineers' Society of St. Paul, December, 1884.
Engineers' Club of Kansas City, January, 1887.
Montana Society of Civil Engineers, April, 1888.
Wisconsin Polytechnic Society, June, 1892.
Denver Society of Civil Engineers, January 24, 1895.
Association of Engineers of Virginia, February 1, 1895.
Technical Society of the Pacific Coast, March 1, 1895.
Detroit Engineering Society, January, 1897.
Engineers' Society of Western New York, January, 1898.
Louisiana Engineering Society, September 15, 1898.
Engineers' Club of Cincinnati, January, 1899.
The Wisconsin Polytechnic Society withdrew from the Association in
March, 1894.

The Western Society of Engineers withdrew in December, 1895.
The Engineers' Club of Kansas City disbanded at the close of 1896.
The Denver Society of Civil Engineers and the Association of Engineers
of Virginia disbanded in 1898.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE CHAIRMAN. 65

Animal Report of the Chairman of the Board of Managers.

December 31, 1900.
To the Members of the Board of Managers of the Association of Engineer-
ing Societies:

Gentlemen: — I have the honor to transmit to you and to the Asso-
ciation through you, the annual report of the Secretary of the Association for
the year 1900. This shows an increase in membership during the year from
1475 in 1899 to 1541, while the number of the societies has not changed.

There has been a slight increase in the cost of the Journal, as shown
by the Secretary's report, causing a diminution in the net assets from
those of 1899. The character of the Journal is such that there should be
no difficulty in making it self-sustaining, and the attention of the mem-
bers of the Association is called to the fact that our Journal has a cir-
culation of about 1900 copies, and the advantages of advertising in such
a journal will be evident to all.

In the report of the Chairman for 1899 he stated that no Engineer
could afford to be without the Journal. I desire to repeat that statement,
and ask the members of the Association to keep this Journal before their
friends, with a view to inducing them to subscribe to it.

I also desire to call your attention to the able and efficient work of
the Secretary, who does all the business of the Association, and gives a
great amount of time and care to the work. It is desirable that the mem-
bers of the Association should make every effort to secure advertisements
for the Journal among the members of the societies which they represent.

Respectfully submitted,

James Ritchie, Chairman.

Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board of Managers.

Philadelphia, December 31, 1900.
Mr. James Ritchie, Chairman,

305 City Hall, Cleveland, O.

Dear Sir: — I have the honor to present the following report upon the
operations of the Secretary's office during the year 1900, and of the condition
of the Association at the present time.

These data are concisely stated in the following statistical appendices:

A. Statement of receipts and expenditures during 1900.

B. Estimate of assets and liabilities at the close of 1900.

C. Detailed statement of cost of Journal during 1900, by months.

D. Comparison of mailing lists of the Journal at the close of 1899 and
of 1900, respectively.

E. Statement of material in Journal during 1900, by pages.

66 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

F. Comparison of conditions, 1894 to 1900, inclusive.

A study of Appendix F shows an increase in the cost of the Journal,
with a corresponding diminution of net assets, due partly to a sharp advance
in the printers' rates and partly to an increase of 18 per cent, in the amount
of matter published. The close of the year, nevertheless, finds us with a cash
balance in hand of $1448.24, and total net assets of $2165.67.

During the year, no new societies have joined the Association, but the
aggregate membership of our societies shows an increase of about 4^ per
cent. The present aggregate of 1541 members is greater than at any time
during the history of the Association, exceeding, as it does, by about 4^ per
cent., the aggregate membership at the close of 1895, before the withdrawal
of the Western Society of Engineers.

In my report for 1899 I was obliged to call attention to " a decided falling
off in the amount of material presented for publication in the Journal,"
the number of pages per thousand members having fallen to 369, the lowest
reached during the preceding six years.

This condition has been, to a great extent, remedied during 1900; the
number of pages of papers having increased from 958 in 1899, to 1130 in 1900,
and the total per thousand members having increased to 432.

The close of the year finds us with considerable material on hand await-
ing the January Journal.

In my last annual report I called attention to the commendable activity
of the Cleveland Society in obtaining advertisements for the Journal, that
society having, by means of the commission of 90 per cent, allowed by the
Association, relieved itself entirely of charges on account of the Association
Journal.

At this writing the Engineers' Club of St. Louis is taking measures to
follow the example of the Cleveland Society.

The List of Members of the Societies in the Association, first pub-
lished in the Journal for January 1899, and again in that for January 1900,
now appears for the third time, and with further improvements in the matter

of its typography.

Respectfully submitted,

John C. Trautwine, Jr., Secretary.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 67

APPENDIX A.

Statement of Receipts and Expenditures during 1900.

CASH, 1900.

Dr.

To Balance. January 1, 1900 $1,866 34

" Assessments, at $2.00 per member :

Boston Society of Civil Engineers $992 00

Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland 387 50

Engineers' Club of St. Louis 407 00

Civil Engineers' Club of St. Paul 58 00

Engineers' Club of Minneapolis. 28 50

Montana Society of Engineers 168 00

Detroit Engineering Society .. 171 00

Engineers' Society of Western New York, 83 00

Louisiana Engineering Society 120 00

Engineers' Club of Cincinnati 179 00

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast 288 50

To Subscriptions

" Sales of Journal

" *' " Descriptive Index

" Advertisements.

" Sales of reprints ,

" Interest on deposits

" Electros

" Letter-heads

" Copyright fee

' Illustrations furnished to authors, etc.

' 792 misdirected envelopes sold.

2,882

50

768

94

l8l

92

26

50

370

83

IO4

25

16

44

25

25

6

25
no

1

65

17

15

84

Cr.

By Patterson & White Co. (Printers) $3,523 15

Illustrations 558 10

Secretary's salary 600 00

Car fares 30

Discounts on subscriptions 28 85

" sales 2 20

Messenger service 4 42

Stationery 17 40

Telegrams 9 46

Postage stamps 34 32

Express charges 2 55

Back numbers bought 50

Binding Journals for Paris Exposition 8 50

Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland. Amount due

from advertisement 16 20

Prof. Geo. D. Shepardson, expenses as chairman 5 00

Engineers' Club of St. Louis, credit balance at end

of 1899 9 50

>,33i 23

Forward $4,820 45 $6,331 23

68 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Forward $4,820 45 $6,331 23

By Secretary's trip to Boston, Feb. 6

trip to New York, March 9 ,

Copyright fee

Subscriptions refunded ,

Amount overpaid on subscription, refunded.
Advertising, including cost of cuts ($24.80).

4,882 99

21

10

4

00

1

00

5

50

2

00

28

94

Cash balance, December 31, 1900 $1,448 24

APPENDIX B.

Estimate of Assets and Liabilities at the Close of 1900.

available assets.

Cash balance, December 31, 1900 $1,448 24

Less subscriptions for 1901, paid during 1900 53 00

$i,395 24

Amounts receivable from Societies (for assessments, etc.):

Boston Society of Civil Engineers $38 20

Montana Society of Engineers 130 00

Detroit Engineering Society 47 50

Engineers' Society of Western NewYork, 34 55

$250 25

Subscriptions due:

For 1900 90 00

" 1899 100 80

" 1898 and earlier 19200

382 80

For reprints 109 60

' Advertisements 306 ^^

" Sales of Journals 2250

" Index. 725

" " " Cuts 275

$1,081 48

$2,476 72

LIABILITIES.

Patterson & White Co. (Printers):

For December Journal $168 50

" Reprints 700

$175 50

Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland, commissions

on advertisements $108 90

Engineers' Society of Western New York 70

Illustrations. 25 95

311 05

Net Assets $2,165 67

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

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70 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

APPENDIX D.

Comparison of the mailing lists of the Journal, at the close of 1899 and
of 1900, respectively:

In- De-

1899. 1900. crease. crease.

Boston Society of Civil Engineers 495 501 6

Engineers' Club of Cleveland 185 208 23

Engineers' Club of St. Louis 206 204 ... 2

Civil Engineers' Society of St. Paul 29 29

Engineers' Club of Minneapolis.. 19 13 ... 6

Montana Society of Engineers 107 109 2

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast 146 136 ... 10

Detroit Engineering Society 97 105 8

Engineers' Society of Western New York. 43 72 29

Louisiana Engineering Society. 53 74 21

Engineers' Club of Cincinnati 95 90 ••• 5

In the societies composing the Association, 1475 1541 89 23

Net increase 66

Extra copies to Societies 46 50 4

Advertisers 18 14 ... 4

Exchanges 115 116 1

Subscribers 249 216 ... 33

Complimentary copies 1 6 5 ...

Totals 1904 1943 99 60

Net increase 34

Besides this, many copies have been sold and specimen copies sent out;
and authors of papers have each received five copies of the Journals contain-
ing them. Two thousand five hundred copies of the January number were
printed, 2100 of February, March and April, and 2250 of each of the other
months.

APPENDIX E.
Statement of material in Journal during 1900, by pages.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September ...

October

November .....
December

Papers.

Pro-
ceed-
ings.

Chair-
man's
Report

24

Adver-
tise-
ments.

Indexes
to Vols.

List of
Mem-
bers.

Totals.

210
104
84
80
86
76
90
60
74
74
80
64

Totals 666 107 24 187 16 82 1082

Covers 48

Total 1 130

Cuts.

Plates
and full-
page
cuts.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

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Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.

As

SOCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Organized 1881.

Vol. XXVI. FEBRUARY, 1901. No. 2.

This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or for
the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION.

Papers Presented at the Meeting of the Boston Society of Civil
Engineers, held October 17, 1900.

Economy and Strength of Brick and Concrete Arches for
Floor Systems of Highway Bridges.*

By William D. Bullock, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineer

The Weybosset bridge in the city of Providence spans the
Providence River at Market square. There are three piers
dividing into four spans the river channel, which is 132^ feet
wide. The channel at the bridge being on a curve the steel plate
girders, which are 42^ inches deep, are placed on radial lines,
Fig. 1.

Extending from girder to girder, and riveted to them, are
transverse floor beams 2 feet deep and spaced 8^ feet apart.
Supported on these floor beams are 10-inch I beams, spaced about
2 feet 5 inches apart in radial lines, between the main girders.

The spaces between the I beams and the main girders are
covered by brick arches, leveled up with Portland cement con-
crete to within 2 inches of grade.

The area of the bridge is 31,610 square feet.

Located as this bridge is, in the center of the city and furnish-
ing the main passageway between the east and west sides, it is
subjected to very heavy and concentrated travel, including both
highway and trolley car travel. Under these circumstances the
question of designing a substantial floor at a reasonable cost
became one of great importance.

^Manuscript received November 6. 1900. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
12

74

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION.

75

76

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The ordinary forms of flooring of steel shapes, at the price
of 2.34 cents per pound paid for this bridge, would cost about 72
cents per square foot, and the concrete for leveling up ready to
receive the asphalt paving would cost 15 cents per square foot,
making a total cost of 87 cents per square foot for this form of
construction at the former low price of steel. At the prevailing
prices of steel during the past year, of say 5 cents per pound,
the cost would be about $1.68 per square foot.

The cost of the steel 10-inch I beams and dam plates was
26 cents per square foot of floor, and the cost of the brick arches
and concrete for leveling up to grade was 26 cents per square
foot, making a total cost, for the masonry floor, of 52 cents per
square foot. This shows a difference of 35 cents per square
foot in favor of the masonry floor as compared with the low con-
tract prices. In addition to the saving in the first cost of the
masonry arch floor, there is an additional saving in the reduced
surface of metal to be painted.

— — — - —

Fig. 3. Test of Arches Proposed for Driveway Floor of the Weybosset

Bridge.

The weight of the steel floor of Carnegie shapes leveled up
with concrete would be about 112 pounds per square foot and that
of the masonry floor 118 pounds per square foot.

After the plans were decided upon and the actual work of
construction begun, it was decided to make the concrete 2f inches
thicker, in order to enable the trolley company to use deeper
rails than originally intended. This increased the weight 39!
pounds and the cost 7 cents per square foot. Fig. 2 shows the
section of the floor as actually constructed.

The question is thus narrowed down to whether or not a
thin floor of masonry arches between steel I beams will have
sufficient strength to meet the trying conditions of a city high-
way bridge. In addition to various calculations made to deter-
mine this question, it was thought desirable to make some prac-

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION.

17

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78 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

tical tests on arches of the same dimensions and exactly of the
same construction as those proposed to be used. In the city
bridge shop 6 brick arches were built between io-inch I beams,
leveled up with concrete, and the I beams tied together with iron
clamp bars. In the absence of any testing machine a contrivance
was improvised from materials on hand for making the tests,
substantially as shown by Fig. 3. The arches were made of par-
tially vitrified paving brick made by the New England Brick
Company and laid in Atlas Portland cement mortar, 1 to 1.
The concrete was made of Atlas and Alpha Portland cement 1
part, sand 2 parts and screened medium gravel 4 parts. The
Atlas cement, tested neat in briquettes at the end of 24 hours,
showed a tensile strength of 426 pounds per square inch and the
Alpha 365 pounds per square inch.

The voids in sand were 30.3 per cent, of volume.

The voids in gravel were 35.9 per cent, of volume.

The weight of the brick arches per cubic foot was 150.3
pounds and the concrete 158.1 pounds.

The foregoing table shows the results of the tests. The bear-
ing shoe was of the same width and curvature as some of the
heavy low gears in use in this city. The yielding of the heavy
4 x £-inch clamp bars in the first and sixth experiments showed
that there was a large horizontal thrust from the arches.

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 79

A Test of the Strength of Rapp Floor Arches.*

By Frederic H. Fay, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

From time to time the Engineering Department of the City of
Boston has been asked by the Building Commissioner to make tests
upon different types of fireproof floors. These tests, however, had
nothing to do with fireproof qualities, they having been made solely
to satisfy the Commissioner that the floors in question were capable
of sustaining the load required by the city building laws. Hence
we might call them tests of the "working strength." One of these,
a test of some floor arches of the Rapp type of construction, is
described herewith. Considering the fact that the test was made
upon one of the floors of a building (which at the time was in
process of construction), and that the arches had been built before
the test was proposed, it is thought that the conditions found were
those likely to be met in practice.

Details of this Rapp floor are shown in the accompanying
figures.

Two adjoining arches near the center of the building were
selected for the test, the span of each arch being, approximately,
7 feet 10^ inches, and the width 16 feet 5 inches, the distances being
measured between the centers of the supporting beams. The total
area of the two is about 258 square feet.

The test consisted in loading the arches with a live load of
about 500 pounds per square foot, the behavior of the arches during
the test being studied by noting their deflection and spread.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE FLOOR.

Between columns 11 and 12 and columns 16 and 17 are two
18-inch I-beam headers. At right angles to the latter are three
15-inch I beams, the middle one being framed into the 18-inch
beams and the other two connecting directly to the columns.

Curved Rapp tees are supported by the bottom flanges of the
15-inch beams. These tees consist of pieces of sheet steel 4^
inches wide and 1-16 inch thick, bent so as to form a "T" section
with about 2^-inch flange and i^-inch stem. Separators, made by
bending a strip of steel 1^ inches wide by 1-16 inch thick, regulate
the spacing of the tees at about 8f inches on centers.

The Rapp tees being placed with their stems upward, the
flanges are available for supporting rows of bricks which form an

*Manuscript received November 6, 1900. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

8o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

arch of nearly 9 inches rise above the bottom of the beams. The
bricks were laid dry, and after they were in place cement grouting
was supposed to have been poured over the arch and into the joints
between the bricks. Many of the joints, however, apparently con-
tained but little mortar.

A filling of cinder concrete, said to be made of one part Atlas
cement and eight parts cinders, was then deposited upon the arches
to the level of the tops of the 15-inch beams. Thus there was about
4 inches of concrete above the brick arch at the crown, the depth
increasing to a maximum of 12 inches of concrete at the springing.
Neither the upper layer of concrete, inclosing the nailing strips,
nor the wooden floor had been put in place at the time the test was
made.

The 15-inch I beams were said to be connected by tie rods,
which had been bent upward two inches or more out of line in
order that they might not be exposed in the ceiling at the crown
of the arch.

Separator

Rapp Tee

Details of Arch

Details of Rapp Floor in Building on India Street.

DETAILS OF THE TEST.

The test was begun Wednesday, November 9, and ended
Saturday, November 12. When the arches received their full load
the concrete filling had been in place fifteen days. The loading
was made by using bricks carefully piled in such a manner as to
avoid breaking joints, thus allowing their weight to be uniformly
distributed. A representative of the building department super-
vised the loading, and by weighing and measuring several lots of
bricks secured the data from which the total weight of bricks was
estimated from their volume. The maximum load applied was,
very closely, 500 pounds per square foot.

The deflection of the floor was obtained by taking levels upon
the under side of the beams and arches of the two bays tested, and

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 81

also upon two of the adjoining arches. The spread of the arches
was determined by measurements with a steel tape and an engi-
neer's scale.

The first series of levels and measurements was made between
10 and 2 o'clock of Wednesday, November 9, before any live load
was applied to the floor. From 2 o'clock of Wednesday until noon
of Thursday workmen were engaged in putting on the bricks.

Partial Plan of Second Floor, Showing Tested Bays.

Friday morning, after the arches had been carrying their full live
load for nearly twenty-four hours, the second series of readings
was taken. Friday afternoon the load was entirely removed.
After a period of rest of about sixteen hours the bays were again
measured on Saturday morning, to determine to what extent the
floor had recovered from the effects of the load.

Table I shows the deflections of the two arches tested. The
deflections there given are net ; that is, the toral drops of the arches
have been corrected to allow for the settlement of the supporting
beams, so that the net results given are the same as though there had
been no vertical movement of the arch supports.

82

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

TABLE I.
Showing Deflection of Arches.

Point.
[On Under Side of Arch].

Deflection

Under Live Load of

500 Lbs. per

Sq. Ft.

Upward Movement

Upon Removal of

Load.

Deflection

Still Remaining

after Removal

of Load.

k

0.21 inch

O. II inch

0.10 inch

1

0.26

"

0 14 "

0.12 "

in

0.24

"

C. 1 6 "

0.08 "

11

0.18

"

O 13 "

0.05 "

o

0.30

"

019 "

O.II "

p

0.22

c i

O 16 "

0.06 "

Average for Arch kllll
Average for Arch nop
Average for both arches

0.24
0.23
0.23

«

0.14 "
0.16 "
0.15 "

O.IO "

0.07 "
0.09 "

Measurements at the middle of the 15-inch beams showed the
spread of the arches in the direction C D to be as given in Table II.

TABLE II.
Showing Spread of Arches.-

Arch.

Elongation

Under Live Load of

500 Lbs. per

Sq. Ft.

Contraction

Upon Rrmoval of

Load.

Elongation

Still Remaining after

Removal of Load.

From b to e
From e to li

0.16 inch
0.09 "

0.09 inch
0.07 "

0.07 inch
0.02 "

Throughout the test levels were taken upon the two adjacent
arches, at C and D, which were liable to deformation from the
thrust of the loaded arches. Xo considerable movement was found
in either adjacent arch, and apparently their shape was practically
unchanged.

CONCLUSIONS.

Under the load of 500 pounds per square foot the average
deflection of the two arches tested was ^ inch. Sixteen hours after
the removal of the load the arches had regained about 60 per cent,
of their deflection, making the average deflection still remaining
less than ^ inch. Some permanent set might have been expected,
due to the closing of certain joints between bricks which were only
partly filled with cement grout. Still, it is possible that the arches
had not entirely recovered from their fatigue, and that a further
slight upward movement could have been detected had readings
been taken at a longer interval after the removal of the load. The
smallness of the spread of the arches was probably due to the fact

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 83

that the floor had been built in the adjoining bays, and its stiffness
was sufficient to prevent much sidewise motion of the arches in
question. It is not likely that the bent tie rods would be very effi-
cient in holding" the thrust, which must have been resisted prin-
cipally by the sidewise bending- of the supporting beams and outer
walls. The practice of bending tie rods in arches is certainly not
to be recommended, and it is understood that, in accordance with
the suggestion of the Building Department, the rods of the other
floors of this building have been made straight.

84 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Expanded Metal as Used in Fireproof Building Construction
and Other Work.*

By William M. Bailey, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

The object of this paper is to give briefly some information
regarding the uses of expanded metal, and the results of a few tests
made on expanded metal and concrete structures.

At intervals there have been submitted for the consideration
of engineers and architects different combinations of plastic mate-
rials and steel, and of concrete and steel, with the steel in the form
of isolated ribs acting entirely in tension ; combinations where single
rods are imbedded in the tension side of the concrete, and combina-
tions of steel and concrete where the steel in continuous sheets is
imbedded in the tension side of the concrete and acts also under
transverse stress. Each of these methods claims to possess cer-
tain advantages. The expanded metal system belongs to the latter
class, in which the expanded metal acts entirely in tension and is
distributed through the tension side of the slab or beam. The metal
should be placed as far as possible from the neutral axis where its
moment of resistance is greatest, and at the same time be thor-
oughly imbedded in the concrete. In order to develop the full
strength of steel it is also necessary that it should be held in place
by some means possessing greater strength than the cohesion
between the steel and the concrete.

Expanded metal is made from sheet steel cut with the grain,
and expanded into diamond-shaped meshes, greatly increasing the
original size of the sheet without any waste of material. Expanded
metal lathing is made from the lighter gages of steel, Nos. 27 and
24, and is expanded only about three times the size of the sheet of
steel. This lathing, besides being substituted for wooden laths, is
use in the construction of fireproof partitions and outside walls.
It is also almost exclusively used for the framing of cornice and
ornamental plaster work. The metal generally used in floors is
No. 10 or No. 4 gage, the short diameter of the diamond mesh
being 3 and 6 inches respectively, making the finished product from
eight to twelve times wider than the sheet of steel. This gives for
each foot in width a sectional area of .168 square inch for the
3-inch mesh, No. 10 gage, and .282 square inch for the 6-inch mesh,
No. 4 gage metal.

For fireproof floors cinder concrete is largely used, on account
of its lightness and its great resistance to fire. Tests show that it

*Manuscript received January 2, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION.

85

is superior to either stone concrete, tile or brick work laid in Port-
land cement mortar. It weighs 100 pounds per cubic foot, and has
an average crushing strength of 1200 pounds per square inch,
mixed in the proportion of one part cement, two parts sand and
five parts cinders. Where we require greater strength Portland

0

/or toppo/"? of ceocreT*
y/o// ffs /-efrvtrcv' 4y?fe
off/ces-/v c/wrfe 0/ ff.

Secf/of,

Fig. 1. Retaining Wall at the New Dock for the Joint Use of the
F. R. R. Co. and the United States Navy Yard, Boston, Mass..
Showing the Use of Concrete and Expanded Metal.

cement stone concrete is used with heavy expanded metal. For
this construction tight wood centering is put up between floor
beams so that the concrete can be properly tamped, and the ex-
panded metal is placed directly on the centers. The shape of the
metal is such that it touches the centering at only one point in each

86 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

mesh, which allows space for the concrete to be worked in and
around the meshes, thoroughly imbedding the metal. In joining
one sheet of metal with another it is necessary only to lap the sheets

Fbrtlond Cement Concrete.

F*ponJedJ)feto/,<S '/vfr 4. y

~7~

IS

Fig. 2. Covered Waterway.

K - —

Fig. 3-

Section of Proposed Conduit for New Jersey Water Co.

from 6 to 12 inches, and the concrete will bond them together so
securely that the metal will break before they can be pulled apart.
The shape of expanded metal is such that it cannot slip or be pulled
through the concrete. Concrete and metal have to work together;

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION.

87

no sudden shock or continued vibrations can break their bonds. A
great advantage in expanded metal is that it gives tensile strength
not only lengthwise, but also transversely. It forms a blanket sys-
tem, distributing the load in all directions, the whole acting as a
monolithic structure.

When steel is properly imbedded in Portland cement concrete
or plaster, we may feel sure that it will not rust. The expansion
and contraction of steel caused by changes in temperature is practi-
callv the same as that of concrete. Combined in one structure,

Fig. 4. Expanded Metal as Used to Reinforce Arch of Sewer.

steel and concrete act so well that the expanded metal system has a
wide field, and it is interesting to note the different designs where
expanded metal can be used with a saving of material.

The walls of wooden and steel frame buildings are built of 2
inches of Portland cement and expanded metal lath. Large tanks
and cisterns have been built with expanded metal and concrete.
Sidewalks, floors and highway bridges, foundations in quicksand,
conduits and sewers, coverings for reservoirs, flat arches and many
other designs can be successfully built with this construction, and
money saved by so doing.

The question arises, How much does expanded metal increase
the strength of a concrete structure? Where crushing strength

88 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

only is required expanded metal does not add materially to the
strength of the concrete, but in any structure that is subject partly
to tensile strain expanded metal may be used with great advantage
to develop the full compressive strength of the concrete. Load a
concrete beam, for example. It gives way when the ultimate ten-
sile strength is reached, which is possibly one-eighth of the com-

sbBqEST^

m

;"^jm^g^

MM

O^'"' ffl

,, -• . _ -*£

F:

. _ 1

■

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Fig. 5. Load Section of Culvert.

3d 5coEE;DsTon Nailing Floor-

ConcrltcTilling.

Ejipandw Altal
CiN'on.V Concrete

-T

T>LASTEIi-

H9. S 5Y5TE/A

Fig. 6.

pressive strength of the same material. If by the introduction of a
light rod or sheet of expanded metal we can make the beam stand
until the ultimate crushing strength is reached, we have increased
the strength of the beam at least eight times.

I will give the results of a few tests of the expanded metal
system, that will prove all we can say for the strength of the combi-
nation. In most of these tests on flat floor slabs, tabulated below,
the spans are short, but it is only a question of grtater thickness of

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION.

concrete and heavier metal for equal strength on longer spans ; and
formulae are now in use by which we design the composite struc-
ture with the same confidence that we have in designing wooden
or steel structures.

Tests of Concrete and Expanded Metal Floors. Flat Slabs, Supported

on I Beams.

Span.

IS |

Mixture

of

Concrete.

&T3

(35

Equiv.
Dist. Load
per Sq. Ft.

u .

"5.2

Size of
Metal.

Remarks.

i

4' t-1A"

3"

C. Sand. Cinders.
i 2 5

30

2333

3" Mesh.
No. 10 Gage.

Cement used in all
these tests was
American Portland.

2

4' iJ£"

3"

I 2 5

3i

2354

Test made on same
slab as above.

3

5' 2"

3^"

I 3 6

3°

775

A"

'

4

4'o"

3^"

I 2^ 5

30

1750

None

1

5

6'o"

3^"

I 2 5

30

1 100

%"

'

6

6'o"

4"

Rock.

I 2 6

28

850

~h"

'

This floor had 1"
granolithic finish.

7

5' 4"

4"

i 3 6

30

914

5 //

IB

'

8
9

10

5' 4"
II' o"

4'o"

6"
6"

2^"

i 3 6
i 2 5

30
30
30

914

360

26

None
9 //

B4

Broke

2Sh

3" N
No IV

eets.

0. 10.

letal.

When load was re-
moved, ey deflec-
tion remained.

ii

4'o"

2^"

30

256

"

3" Mesh.
No. 10 Gage.

DESCRIPTION OF TESTS.

Test No. 1. The slab tested was a panel selected from floors
built in an eight-story building. The mixture of the concrete was
one part Alpha cement, two parts sand and five parts cinders, and
when tested was thirty days old. In section it was like Fig. 8.
The I beams supporting the slab were 4 feet i-| inches on centers ;
thickness of concrete 3 inches, with one sheet 3-inch mesh, No. 10
gage, expanded metal imbedded in the lower part. The testing
began by loading a platform 4 x 12 feet with pig iron. No deflec-
tion was perceptible until 13 tons had been put on, when there was
a deflection of ^V inch. It then increased under the loading as
follows :

Tons. Deflection.

*!% 3l32 in-

20 1/8 "

25 3/16 "

[13]

30
35

44^

48

58^

1/4 "
5/16"

3/8 "

9/16 "

n/16 "

90

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

After twenty-four hours the load was removed and the floor
returned to its original position, which shows considerable elasticity
of the combination.

Test No. 2. This test was made the following day on the same
slab as test No. I by loading a plank 12 inches wide, 9 feet 6 inches
long, placed lengthwise in the middle of the bay. A total load of 23
tons was applied, with a deflection of f inch. The slab gradually
settled down and broke, resting on a false floor which had been
placed 3 inches below. A final test on this slab was made by drop-
ping a weight of 185 pounds (18 inches square on the end) 11 feet
upon the broken slab, after the false floor had been removed, with-
out apparently doing further damage. This floor was designed to
carry a breaking load of 1600 pounds per square foot, and the tests
showed over 40 per cent, increase of strength.

All of the tests tabulated, excepting Nos. 10 and 11, were made
upon sections of floors selected by the architect or engineer from

Fig. 7.

buildings under construction, and therefore give a fair and practical
idea of the strength of expanded metal and concrete flat slab cover-
ings for floors, roofs, etc.

Without giving more details than are shown by the tables for
tests similar to No. 1, we will compare Nos. 10 and 11. In both
these slabs the concrete came from the same "batch" or mixture,
and both were allowed to set under like conditions ; so without
doubt the average crushing strength of each per square inch was
the same. In No. 10 the slab was composed of concrete alone, and
broke under a uniformly distributed load of 26 pounds per foot.
£ri No. 1 1 the concrete slab of same thickness as No. 10 contained
one sheet of 3-inch mesh, No. 10 gage, expanded metal imbedded
in the lower or tension side of the beam, and broke under a uni-
formly distributed load of 256 pounds per square foot. This shows
that the metal increased the strength of the concrete beam about
ten times.

In Fig. 3 we have a cross-section of a concrete and expanded
metal conduit built by the New York Expanded Metal Company as

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 91

an experimental section for the Jersey City Water Supply Com-
pany from design of Mr. R. Godfrey, civil engineer. The con-
crete below the springing of the arch was composed of one part
Nazareth cement, two parts fine stone screenings and sharp sand
and four parts of crushed stone ; the portion above the spring line
was composed of one part cement, two and one-half parts screenings
and sand and five parts crushed stone. When the concrete was
seven days old the centering was removed, and at the age of twenty-
one days the concrete structure was tested. Fig. 5 is from a photo-
graph of the loaded 12-foot section. Twenty-five tons of steel
rails were placed upon three wooden saddles fitted on the crown of
the arch 6 feet apart. Slight cracks were developed at points
marked a, b, c in Fig. 3. About one ton of steel rails was after-
ward twice dropped 1 1 feet upon the loaded section, and the cracks
were slightly widened, which, with a total deflection of ^ inch, was
the only change in the structure. The results from the above test

Fig. 8.

were so favorable that the writer has since built a similar conduit
for the Massachusetts Chemical Company, at Walpole, Mass. A
wheel pit 33 feet deep and 15 feet in diameter, with an 8- foot
diameter inlet and an arched tail-race 15 feet in diameter, are now
under construction for the same company. The walls of the wheel
pit are 18 inches thick at the bottom, and reinforced with expanded
metal. The flume deck, carrying a weight of 20 feet of water, and
the floor of the generator house above are concrete and expanded
metal flat slabs supported on I beams similar to our No. 3 system,
shown in Fig. 8. The tail-race is to be built part of the distance in
a trench 22 feet deep, with the following dimensions: Span 15
teet, rise 18 inches, concrete 6 inches thick at the crown and in-
creasing to 8 inches thick at springing. One sheet of expanded
metal, 3-inch mesh, No. 10 gage, is imbedded in the concrete to
give the tensile strength where required.

Mill engineers are becoming interested in the possibilities of
concrete and expanded metal construction, as it may be applied to
their work. One of the large pulp mills in Maine has recently ac-
cepted our designs for concrete and expanded metal bleaching

Q2

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

chests. They are circular, about 14 feet in diameter and 20 feet
high ; the walls at the bottom 6 inches thick, with enough expanded
metal imbedded in the concrete shell to give it the necessary
strength when filled to the top with water.

Entire buildings are now made of cement and concrete on
wooden or steel frames, and are practically fireproof. Many
owners carry no insurance, and when insurance is carried the dif-
ference in rates warrants the extra expense of concrete construction
over wood.

"z

T

^Tl»«kM»UJT«,e»cTc (-35- S>ikc> _^

r.\, ,,.-v/.V:--!>V.4ri::^.VKV^.i:,^7,.'^A

J -'■■'-'■-'-'-'•'■■'■'■■■-"'■'"J - I'JIU'I"!.^.'.

LTtATcSKJ

C*^onJ«d ^.

•iAAi'*7"

A? 4 6vsTtn
With and Without Flat Cm umg

Fig. 10.

In Fig. 9 are sections of outside walls, partitions, etc., as built
with expanded metal and Portland cement.

A reservoir has lately been covered over with a flat slab or
blanket of concrete and expanded metal, and was supported only
by piers about 12 feet on centers each way. This made a simple
and easily constructed covering only 7 inches thick, which did not
require such expensive centering as is necessary with the groined
arches.

There is a growing demand for concrete structures, and I
have tried to show by these few tests and remarks that expanded
metal of the right shape and strength, properly used with concrete
or plaster, will give a maximum strength with a minimum amount
of material, and is applicable to many cases where concrete alone
could not be used.

jl Sc*M-.E

E.T

CaSTCCN CxPANDCD^tXALCo

AaNMATT.A.N CONCRETE Co
42. Court ^t t>o^n

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 93

Description of Ransome System of Concrete Steel Floors.*

By M. C. Tuttle. of the Aberthaw Construction Company.

In order to properly understand the strength of the concrete
steel arch, or, more correctly, beam, it is necessary to first consider
the principle of the combination of the steel bar with the concrete.
Square bars of steel are gripped by the ends, and are twisted cold
until the angle made -by the edge with the axis of the bar is about
200. The bar thus becomes a long screw. The mortar of the
concrete imbeds itself in the concave whorls of the bar, and, when
set, in order to remove the bar an area of concrete must be sheared
off equal to the superficial area of the cylinder inclosing the bar.
In addition, some portion of every face presents a resistance to
drawing through the concrete in a direction inclined to the axis of
the bar. One component of this is a compressive resistance. Thus
the bar is thoroughly and rigidly held throughout its entire length,
so that it cannot stretch or draw, and can at no point bring upon the
concrete a concentrated stress greater than it can bear.

Thus for practical purposes the bond of union is perfect, and
the composite beam can be figured accurately by using the steel as a
tensile member and the concrete as a compressive member. The
common formula, which is sufficiently accurate for all practical
wcrk, is obtained by equating the external force M — f (giving
the bending moment in the beam for a uniformly distributed load )
against the internal force of the working stress of the bar into the
arm between it and the center of gravity of the upper third of the
concrete, which is the compressive portion of the beam considered.
Equating these gives the formula f = g~0. V/herein f is the
fiber stress in the bar in pounds per square inch, L is the total load
on the beam in pounds, S is the span in inches and D is the depth of
beam from its top to the center of the bar. As cold twisting of
mild steel increases the tensile strength and raises the elastic limit
from 10 to 15 per cent., there is no appreciable error in increasing
the denominator 5 per cent., changing 6f to 7, which makes a simple
formula for actual use f = £|. Numerous experiments show
that there is greater strength in the actual construction than is
indicated in the formula, which nominally gives a factor of from
4 to 5.

For short spans, say up to about 10 feet, we use a flat slab of
concrete with the rods imbedded in the lower surface. It will be

^Manu-crint received December 5, 1900. — Secretary. Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

94

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

seen that the tensile members of the slab run in straight lines, and
this is an important advantage of our construction over those which
employ a metal mesh, for where heavy loads or long spans necessi-
tate an increase in the depth of the slab we can core out between
the lines of stress, and thus, while retaining the depth and strength,

Cold twisted
steel bars

•^ Section "XX" ^

Fig. i. Design for Flat Slab Floor, Ransome System.

H Twisted Square Steel Bars

t"

Panel Ceiling

' % Twisted Square Steel Bar

Flat Ceiling

7

Staff'

Fig. 2. Design for Fire-proof Floors, Ransome System.

can decrease the weight of the slab. This construction gives an
absolutely fire-proof and rust-proof floor, which is capable of carry-
ing large loads over long spans. It will be observed that the bar
is thoroughly encased in the concrete, but nevertheless it is never
more than 2 to 3 inches from the lower surface. Experiments by

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION.

95

Mr. E. L. Ransome, by those interested in the Monier and Melan
systems and by Professor Bauschinger, of the Munich Technical
High School, all prove that concrete affords a thoroughly trust-
worthy means of protecting steel against rust.

Fig. i shows the construction of a flat slab floor. Fig. 2 shows
a section of floor where the concrete has been cored out between the
bars which form the tensile members of this construction. Going:

#^i\

Fig. 3. Design for Roof of Septic Tank.

Bay.

Isometric View of Typical

Safe Superimposed Load, including 2 ft. Earth Fill = 250 lbs. per sq. foot. Weight on each
Pier with Full Load = 15 tons. Load on soil 3 tons per sq. foot. Girders, each half, 6" x 15"
+ i%"bar. Beams 3" x 10" — %" twisted steel bar. Slab 3" thick with M" twisted bars 10"
center to center. Piers 12" x 12" x 10' long. Footings 2' 3" x 2' 3" x 12" thick. Bays, 12' x
8' 6" on centers.

one step further, we build floors with concrete girders. The con-
crete beams head into these girders. Fig. 3 is an isometric view of
the roof of a septic tank designed on these lines.

Probably the best example of Ransome construction is the
building of the Pacific Coast Borax Company, at Bayonne, N. J.
In plan the building is about 75 feet by 200 feet, and is four stories

96

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

in height. The floors take their bearing on concrete columns 18
inches square and upon the walls. The floor bays are 12 x 24 feet.
The floors were designed for carrying loads of 500 pounds per
square foot, besides supporting jarring machinery; but they are
often entirely covered with borax to a load of 1000 pounds per
square foot.

As regards the strength of this construction: In the police
court building at Chelsea, Mass., we built a flat slab 4% inches thick
which had a clear span of 14 feet 8 inches between supports, re-
inforced by f-inch bars 6 inches apart between centers. It was
designed for a live load of 100 pounds per square foot. Some ques-

Ransome Floor Construction, Edison Illuminating Co.'s Power Plant,

Paterson, N. J.

tion was raised as to its strength, and in order to reassure the
doubters we put 40 barrels of cement three tiers high on the center
of the span, giving a load equal to 200 pounds per square foot
uniformly distributed. There was no apparent effect on the slab.
In 1897 the Building Department of the city of Boston made a
test of a beam floor which spanned 15 feet. The beams were
figured to carry 125 pounds per square foot, which equaled two
tons each. The Building Department loaded one beam with six
tons on the middle 13 feet. The deflection was 3-16 inch. This
load remained on for three weeks, and the deflection disappeared
when the load was removed.

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION.

97

At this building we constructed over an area a driveway with
a span of 12 feet between supports. The thickness between the
upper surface and the bottom of the concrete beams is about 12
inches. This driveway is subject to the usual jarring and pounding
wear of a roadway. Heavy loads of flour are taken over it daily,
and 4-horse loads of machinery have been hauled over it re-
peatedly. It is in as good shape to-day as the week it was built.

A specimen of our floor was tested by Professor Edward F.
Miller, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The con-
crete slab was 4 inches thick, 5 feet wide and 14 feet long, and was
supported by 6-inch I beams spaced 4 feet 7 inches on centers.

Raxsome Floor. Edison Illuminating Co/s Power Plant, Paterson, N. J.

There was no side support. The specimen was 21 days old when
tested. Imbedded at the bottom of the slab, and 6 inches apart
on centers, were pieces of f-inch square twisted steel. The slab
was designed for a load of 500 pounds per square foot. One end
span of the slab was first tested by piling bricks on it until it was
loaded with a uniformly distributed weight of 489 pounds per
square foot. Under this load the center deflection between the I
beams was 3-32 inch. The load was then increased to 724 pounds
per square foot, and the deflection under this load was 5-32 inch.
With the maximum load still remaining on the first span, the second
span was tested by dropping a stick of spruce timber, weighing
164I pounds, from a height of 7 feet 10 inches so that it struck on

98 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

end in the center of the span. Five blows in all were struck in this
way. Three of them were at an angle. The last two blows were
fair, and both struck in the same space at about 20 inches from the
1 beam. Xo cracks were noticed after this. The third span was
tested by setting a jack under an upright and turning it until a load
of 7700 pounds was brought on an area 5x9 inches. At this load
a slight crack appeared, and the specimen gradually failed. The
middle span was then loaded across the center through an I beam
having a bearing surface 3^ inches wide and 5 feet long. The
maximum load put on at the center was 20,700 pounds, which equals

1900 pounds per square foot uniformly distributed, and the deflec-
tion at the time the first crack appeared at the bottom was 11-16
inch.

In our opinion, the most notable example of the strength of
concrete steel floors is that of the Edison Electric Station at Pater-
son, X. J. Here the concrete floor has girders 9^-foot span and
beams 12^-foot span, 18 inches in depth, united at the top by a panel
4 inches thick. The girders are supported by brick piers 20 inches
square. A counter-shaft about 100 feet in length is bolted down to
the panel of this floor ; with 22 belts, two connected with 750 horse-
power engines, the others driving dynamos, all pulling on one side.
All the dynamos rest on the floor at any convenient point. Quite a
number of compound engines of the vertical type are supported by
two A frames bolted down to the floor, which in turn is supported

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 99

by long brick piers. The main shaft is about 18 feet in length,
having a heavy fly wheel, and the armatures of two large dynamos
wound on it, and supported by two pillow blocks which are bolted
down to the 4-inch panel in the middle of the 12^-foot span. These
engines run very smoothly, and there is scarcely a perceptible
tremor when standing in contact with the pillow block while the
engines are running.

There are many other applications of this system, such as the
construction of walls, chimneys, arch bridges, retaining walls, etc.
We have confined our description only to the so-called flat arch
floor.

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Tests of Roebling: Fireproof Floors.*

By Andrew W. Woodman, C. E.

In the many tests that have been made by the Roebling Construc-
tion Company on concrete floors as installed by them in modern,
first-class buildings, the question that has always received the most
careful consideration is the fire-resisting quality of the construction.

Incidental to these fire tests, however, there have been made
a large number of load tests, which have demonstrated beyond
a peradventure the fact that Roebling Standard Floor Construc-
tion will meet the requirements of the most exacting building
laws.

As the subject of fireproofing is not the one under consid-
eration, the records that will be here given relate only to the
action of the arches tested under load.

The "Roebling Arch" consists of cinder concrete composed of
I part high-grade Portland cement, 2\ parts coarse, sharp sand
and 6 parts clean steam cinders, laid on a permanent stiffened
wire center which is sprung between steel beams.

This wire center is made of a wire netting having round
steel rods woven in at frequent intervals, the size of rod depend-
ing upon the span and rise of the arch. The wire is woven with
4 meshes to the inch in one direction and 2.\ to the inch in the
cross-direction. The stiffening rods are curved to the form of
the arch, and are made of such length that at each end they project
about 2 inches beyond the edge of the netting, so that when the
concrete is laid there will be a good bearing of concrete on the
lower flanges of the beams. After the center is sprung between
the beams it is held in position by means of rods laid parallel to
the axis of the arch and securely laced to the stiffening rods.

Fig. i shows such an arch with the cinder concrete filling in
position and with a suspended wire lath ceiling attached to the
lower flanges of the beams. This form of construction is well
adapted for use in warehouses where provision must be made for
heavy loads. In such cases a modified form of the arch, omitting
the level ceiling and completely incasing the lower flange of the
beam, is very extensively used. A section of this form of con-
struction is represented by Fig. 2, and a photograph showing its
appearance when finished is reproduced in Fig. 3.

The arch form of construction is somewhat more expensive
than many of the lighter forms of fireproof floors, and, to meet

*Manuscript received November 24, 1000. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION.

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

the competition of these cheaper floors, the Roeblings have de-
veloped a form of flat construction such as that represented by
Fig. 4. This consists of a light steel framework imbedded in
cinder concrete. The framework is built of steel bars placed on

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION.

103

edge, twisted at the ends and clamped tightly over the flanges
of the supporting I beams, and braced or bridged throughout by
means of steel spacers placed about 2 feet on centers. Under-
neath this light framework is placed either a permanent center of

fe

stiffened wire cloth or a temporary wood center, on which is laid
the cinder concrete. Such floors are built with spans up to 16
feet, but the long spans are intended for only light, live loads.

With this brief description of forms and methods of construc-
tion, the reports of tests which follow will be more readily under-
stood.

104 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

TESTS OF FLAT CONSTRUCTION.

Test I. An isolated section 4 feet wide, 8 feet between beams
and 2>2 inches thick, with framing consisting of 2 x 3-16 inch
bar, 16 inches on centers, was loaded at the center, the load being
placed on a 12-inch plank across the slab. Under a load of 4000
pounds, which was equivalent to 250 pounds per square foot, the
deflection was -J inch. Under 5200 pounds, which was equivalent
to 325 pounds per square foot, the deflection was y§ inch.

In this test the beams were not held rigidly in place, and the
test was not carried to the destruction of the slab.

Test II. On a continuous floor where the span between
beams was 9 feet 8^ inches, a room 7 feet 8 inches from wall to
plaster partition was loaded up to 106 pounds per square foot.
The framing consisted of 2 x 3-16 inch bars, 16 inches on centers,
so placed that the bottoms of the bars were about 3^ inches below
the top of the concrete. A brick wall had been built on the
beam at outside of building, so that it was impossible to clamp the
bars over this beam as is customary. There was a hole in the floor
about 1 foot square, 1 foot from the plaster partition and close to
the inside beam. Eight layers of furring tile, amounting to 106
pounds per square foot, were placed free of walls, partitions and
girders, covering a space 7x8 feet.

Under this load the deflection was 3-64 inch. In the original
design of this particular building 5-inch beams were specified,
which, on 9 feet 8^4 -inch span and under a 50-pound live load,
would deflect about 5-16 inch, which is close to the limit on this
span for the safety of the plastering.

Test III. At a building in Montreal where the spans were
15 feet 7^ inches, a section 4 feet 5 inches wide was isolated by
cutting with cold chisels. The slab was 8^ inches thick and was
framed with 2 x 3-16 inch bars placed 12 inches on centers. This
was loaded with sand in wooden boxes, covering an area 15 feet 2
inches x 4 feet 2 inches. Loads and deflections were as follows :

With a load of 90 pounds per square foot the deflection was
£ inch.

With a load of 120 pounds per square foot the deflection was
3-16 inch.

With a load of 180 pounds per square foot the deflection was
^ inch.

It is interesting to note that under this load a 12-inch beam,
designed in accordance with the Boston building laws, would
deflect about 11-32 inch. The load was left standing one hour,
then increased to 275 pounds and left standing over night. The

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 105

fa

14

Amount
of Sand in Box.

i' o"

high

2' 0"

"

3'o"

"

4'o"

5' 2"
5' 8"

<<

106 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

total deflection was 7-16 inch. On removal of the load the floor
immediately returned 3-16 inch, leaving thus a permanent de-
flection of \ inch.

Test IV. This same slab was subsequently tested with a
sand load in a 4 x 5-foot box on the center of the span.

Deflection.
Not appreciable.
1/16"

1/8"
5/32"
1/4"
1/4"

This amounted to 10,170 pounds or the equivalent of about
300 pounds per square foot. The load was left standing twenty-
four hours, after which time, as there was no further deflection,
it was removed.

TESTS OF ARCH CONSTRUCTION.

Test V. A floor forming the top of a brick fire-test struc-
ture 11 x 15 feet inside was first fired, then drenched with
water from a fire hose and then loaded. The arches were 10
inches deep, 3 inches thick at crown, on 10-inch Fs, 3 feet iof
inches on centers. The center one of three bays was loaded with
150 pounds per square foot and the structure was then fired.
Temperatures ranging from 20000 F. to 25500 F. were recorded
after the fire was well under way. After two hours the fire was
quenched with a stream of water, and on a subsequent day the
center arch was loaded to 186 pounds per square foot. Deflec-
tions under this load were not recorded.

Test VI. The form of construction as described in Test V,
with 4-foot spans, was submitted to a five-hour test where the
temperature reached 23000 F. as a maximum. The center arch
was loaded with 150 pounds per square foot before the structure
was fired. A fire stream from a i7i-inch nozzle, under 60 pounds
pressure, was applied after five hours, at which time the tem-
perature was 19500 F. Ceilings and walls were wet for fifteen
minutes, then the top of the floor was flooded for seven minutes,
after which time the fire on the grates was quenched. After the
fire test the center bay was loaded with 600 pounds per square
foot, with a resulting deflection of ^ inch.

Test VII. A section of arch that was in the five-hour fire
test previously recorded was subsequently loaded with a view
to determining its ultimate strength. A portion of the arch 4
feet long was isolated by cutting through the concrete and the
center space 2\ x 4 feet was loaded. The beams supporting the
arch were shored up to prevent deflection. The deflection of the
arch was measured under various loads.

BRICK AND CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 107

Under 10,500 pounds it was 0.06 inch.

Under 19,900 pounds it was 0.2 inch.

Under 24,420 pounds it was 0.245 inch.

Loading was continued until the pile was about 12 feet high,
weighed 40,550 pounds and was becoming unstable owing to the
small area on which the load was supported. Three men then
went on top of the pile to commence unloading. At this time,
under a load of about 41,000 pounds, or 4100 pounds per square,
foot of loaded area, the deflection of the arch was | inch. After
the load had been removed it was found that the permanent de-
flection was f inch.

Test VIII. A 5-foot Roebling arch on 10-inch beams, 12
feet long between brick walls, was loaded in the center with
10,000 pounds of pig iron placed on an area of 7 square feet and
subjected to a fire test. Alongside this arch was a similarly
loaded tile arch of 10-inch hard-burned terra cotta, made from
material that had been delivered at a building in course of erec-
tion. At the expiration of four hours and five minutes the
10,000 pounds of pig iron fell through the tile arch and stopped
the test.

Test IX. A 5-foot Roebling arch 14 feet long was built
alongside a 5-foot arch of 8-inch semi-porous tile, and each arch
was loaded with 150 pounds per square foot. The fire test lasted
three hours and sixteen minutes, after which time the tile arch
collapsed.

The deflections previous to failure of tile arch were 3.65 inch
on the tile floor and 1.4 inch on the concrete floor.

Test X. Sections of arch 12 inches long were cut from the
floor tested as described by Test IX, and loaded by means of a
hydraulic cylinder on the center of arch. One section failed at
3000 pounds, and a second failed at 3200 pounds. A section of
the same floor 46 inches long, and similarly loaded, broke under
a center load of 11,900 pounds.

Records of other tests describing the action of Roebling
arches under various conditions of loading might be given, but the
limits of this paper will not permit. Such as are herein given
relate only to strength, and omit much that from the standpoint
of fireproofing would be of great interest; but it is hoped that
these will suffice to demonstrate the suitability of Roebling floor
construction for modern building work, so far as the question
of strength is concerned.

The use of the Roebling arch in bridge floors has never
received much attention, but from the report on the strength and
cost of the brick and concrete arches described in the paper on
"Tests of Brick and Concrete Arches," it would appear that the
field might be entered with advantage.

io8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

A REVIEW OF CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION.

By Chas. M. Kurtz, Member Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

[Read before the Society, March I, 1901.*]

As indicated by the title, the nature of this paper is that of a
review of progress along this line, as found in the various articles
that have from time to time appeared in the engineering publica-
tions.

This paper might also be considered supplementary to the
paper found in the transactions of this Society, written by our
esteemed late president, Mr. G. W. Percy, which paper was read
before this Society January 6, 1888, and entitled "Practical Appli-
cations of Iron and Concrete to Resist Transverse Strains."

In this paper Mr. Percy reviewed the applications of iron to
concrete beams as invented by Thaddeus Hyatt and by E. L.
Ransome. Stated briefly, Mr. Hyatt's method consisted in im-
bedding a skeleton of iron in the shape of a gridiron near the
bottom of the concrete beam or slab, the principle of the construc-
tion being that the iron, used in the lower flanges of the beams,
would serve only as the tie or tensile member, while the concrete
formed the compression member and connecting web. His tests
demonstrated that iron could be perfectly united with concrete
so as to work in unison with it and form a compound beam or
girder.

Mr. Ransome's method consisted in the substitution of
square bars of iron or steel, twisted cold, instead of the iron
frame of Mr. Hyatt's invention, to be imbedded near the bottom
of concrete girders or flat slabs. This application of iron to con-
crete, though modified slightly in arching the beams transversely
between the rods, has been used extensively and successfully in
sidewalks and roofs.

Before describing the different systems, a few remarks will
be made on the elasticity of concrete, the adhesion between con-
crete and iron, and the behavior of concrete as the preservative
of iron.

Elasticity. As will be mentioned later, the elasticity of con-
crete has been practically demonstrated by the tests of the
Austrian Society of Engineers and Architects^ and by numerous
other tests ; consequently, in combination of concrete and metal,
both materials deform equally when subjected to a stress, and there-

*Manuscript received March 7, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
tOesterreichischer Ingenieur- und Architekten-Verein.

A REVIEW OF CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 109

fore their stresses are as their relative moduli of elasticity. Mr.
Thacher, in his formulas, puts the value of the modulus of elas-
ticitv of concrete at 1,400,000 pounds and that of steel at 28,000,-
000 pounds. The Austrian Society determined the value of the
moduli of the elasticity of steel, concrete and mortar as follows :

For steel, 29,700,000 to 31,400,000 pounds.
For concrete, 1,400,000 to 4,000,000 pounds.
For 1.3 mortar, 5,000.000 to 6,000,000 pounds.

Expansion. M. Benniceau, a French author, gives the ther-
mic expansion of Portland cement as 0.0000143 Celsius, while iron
has 0.0000145.

Adhesion. It has been well demonstrated that there is a
strong adhesion between concrete and iron. This great adhesion
is attributed to a chemical connection between the silicates of
cement and steel. Professor Bauschinger found the adhesion
between mortar and iron to be between 570 and 640 pounds per
square inch.

To determine values of the adhesion between iron and ce-
ment mortar, Mr. W. A. Hoyt, a student at the University of
Wisconsin, last year conducted a series of experiments to deter-
mine the stress per square inch of metal surface required to pull
imbedded bolts from the mortar. He experimented with polished
bolts, rusty bolts, bolts with normal surface and bolts that had been
coated with a neat cement mortar before being imbedded in the
concrete. While his experiments were not entirely satisfactory, on
account of a lack of uniformity in the sand used (which, however,
is something liable to happen in practice), the average results of
his tests are as follows :

Age of concrete, ten weeks.

Adhesion of polished bolts, 440 pounds per square inch.

Adhesion of rusty bolts, 520 pounds per square inch.

Adhesion of bolts with normal surface, 570 pounds per square inch.

Adhesion of bolts coated with neat cement, 820 pounds per square inch.

Adhesion (average), 588 pounds per square inch.

Concrete as a Preservative of Iron. It has been well proven
that cement acts as a preservative of iron and steel, and many
instances could be cited showing that iron or steel will not rust
when imbedded in concrete, even if the concrete itself be im-
mersed.

The common principle of all concrete-metal construction is
that the imbedded metal supplies the quality of tension, a quality
which is lacking in the concrete itself, and in return the concrete
stiffens the metal.

no ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Other systems besides the Ransome system of concrete-
metal construction, which are specially favored in practice to-day,
are the Monier, the Wunsch, the Melan, the Thacher, the
Hennebique and the "expanded metal" systems. Each of these
systems is individually a proper subject for a paper, so the discus-
sion of the several systems will be made as brief as is consistent
with a review of this kind.

The most important and popular practice in concrete-metal
construction to-day is the reinforcing of the arch ring of a con-
crete arch by the imbedding of iron or steel in various forms. An
arch fails usually by tearing apart near the center at the intrados,
and at the haunches at the extrados, the material, at these places
in the arch, being unable to withstand the tension to which they
are subjected when too heavily loaded.

The most frequent employment of the Melan, Wunsch and
Thacher systems is found in the concrete-metal arch. The Monier
is the most flexible system, and consequently possesses the greatest

V

Fig. i. Ransome.

variety of applications. The Melan, Wunsch and Hennebique
systems are extensively used for floors in Europe, while American
practice seems to favor the Monier and modifications of the Monier
system and the expanded metal system.

THE RANSOME SYSTEM.

It is a matter of special interest that the first concrete-steel
arch built in the United States was constructed on the Ransome
system. This arch is in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, Cal.,
and was erected in 1889. A second or similar design was erected
in 1891. In this system the twisted steel bars are imbedded in the
concrete arch ring in pairs, about one foot C. to C., one bar of
each pair being near and parallel to the intrados and the other
near and parallel to the extrados. The merits of this system are
so generally known and recognized, and no doubt, especially so
by members of this Society, that further comment on it seems
unnecessary.

A REVIEW OF CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. in
THE MONIER SYSTEM.

The Monier system, until within the last two years, was prac-
tically unknown in this country, but since 1880 it has been applied
in a great variety of constructions in Europe. Among these ap-
plications may be mentioned gas and water reservoirs, grain ele-
vators, sewer pipe, flumes and culverts, fireproof floors and arch
bridges.

In this system the metal consists of a netting of two series of
parallel steel or iron rods, £ to | inch in diameter, which intersect
at right angles and are generally spaced from two to four inches.
At the intersections the rods are bound together with wire -$%
to I inch in diameter. In arches of this system a netting is im-
bedded near the intrados and sometimes a second one near the
extrados. In the tanks, pipes, etc., the netting is imbedded near
the center of the shell.

Xo attempt to construct an arch of a long span in this system
was made until it had been well tested as to its merits by the
Austrian Society, and then one of striking dimensions was built
at Wildegg, Switzerland, in the autumn of 1890. It crosses an
industrial canal at an angle of 450, and has a total span of 122.1
feet, with a rise of only 11.5 feet, less than a tenth of the span.
The bridge is 12.8 feet broad. The Monier arch proper is 7.9 inches
thick at the center, and 25.6 inches at the abutments. The span-
drel walls were likewise constructed on the Monier principle and
are connected at each end by two ties. The abutments are of
concrete, and a backing of this material is run up on the arch
for some distance, as shown in the cuts. The bridge was required
to support a uniform load of 84 pounds per square foot, but on
completion it was put to the test for the maximum load it would
ever carry as a highway bridge. The tests were very satisfactory.
For further description of this bridge see Engineering News for
May 2$, 1 89 1.

As pointed out by Mr. Edwin Thacher, member of the Ameri-
can Society of Civil Engineers, in his paper on concrete-steel
bridge construction in Engineering Neivs, September 21, 1899, this
system has some practical disadvantages. Quoting from this
paper: "The wire nets are so flexible and unruly that it has been
found impracticable to imbed them in concrete containing coarse
aggregates like gravel and broken stone, consequently all the
strictly Monier arches that have been built up to this time have
been built with 1 to 3 mortar, which, as compared with 1 : 2-\ : 5
concrete, is weaker and costs considerably more."

ii2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The theoretical discussion of a Monier arch or any other
concrete-metal arch is a difficult task, on account of the different
materials combined, and it is not the purpose of this paper to take
up the subject in that manner. Discussions may be found in the
"Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engi-
neers," Vol. CXXXIII, page 376, and in the "Zeitschrift des
Oesterreichischen Ingenieur- und Architekten-Vereines," for Sep-
tember 23, 1898.

An excellent descriptive article by Mr. E. L. Heidenreich on
Monier construction is found in the Journal of the Western Society
of Engineers for June, 1900. Mr. Heidenreich enumerates some
of the wonderfully diversified applications of the construction,

Fig. 2. Monier.

among which are reservoirs for storage of water, wine, oil, pulp,
grain, cement, etc., bridges and preservation of steel in bridges
and viaducts, buildings, floors and partitions, culverts and flumes,
fortifications, etc.

One of the most recent applications of the Monier construc-
tion is the use of specially constructed pipes for pile covering, to
protects the pile against the attacks of the teredo navalis, or cobra.
This method of protecting piles was used in constructing five
timber piers for a traffic bridge near Sydney, New South Wales
(each pier consisting of a bent of three piles), and is described by
Mr. E. M. De .Burgh, member of the Institution of Civil Engi-
neers, in a paper in the "Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers."' An extract of the paper appears in Engineering
News, February 7, 1901. Briefly described, the method was this:

A REVIEW OF CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 113

After a pile, having been previously coated with Stockholm
tar, had been driven, sufficient length of the pipe to reach from
below the silt and into the clay, to above high water, was slipped
over the top of the pile and sunk to a proper depth by means of a
water jet being worked around the bottom, and pressure being
applied at the top by means of screw-jacks. Mr. De Burgh is
satisfied that it will prove of great durability and outlast the pile,
which, being iron-bark, may be counted on for a life of thirty years
when protected from the teredo. The cost is estimated between
50 and 100 per cent, greater than that of coppering. The same
paper also gives an account and description of Monier cylinders
being used for foundations as a substitute for the cast iron cylinders
used largely in New South Wales. That concrete-metal in sea
water is a complete success is questionable. Experiments on the
action of sea water upon concrete-steel show that electrolytic actions
take place which cause deterioration of the steel or iron. See Ann
des Ponts et Chaussees, Fourth Quarter, 1899.

THE WUNSCH SYSTEM.

The concrete-metal arch known as the Wunsch system was in-
vented by Robert Wunsch, of Hungary, in 1884. In this system,
arch ribs of metal, consisting of an arched lower and horizontal
upper member, both of which are run together and riveted at the
crown, are imbedded in the concrete. The two members of the
rib are connected at the piers and abutments by vertical and
transverse lower members deeply imbedded in the concrete.

In Fig. 4 is shown an excellent example of this construction.
It is the plan of a Wunsch arch of 83 feet span, — the longest, up
to date, of this system, — constructed in 1897 over the Miljacka
River at Sarajevo. The chords of the metal ribs are made up of
twro angles, and the vertical and transverse members of channels.

When a Wunsch bridge is made up of several spans, as is the
case with the one constructed near Xeuhausel, Hungary, the hori-
zontal or upper chords of the metal ribs are made continuous
from one arch to another. This bridge had six arches, of the
following dimensions: Span, 55.8 feet; rise, 3.7 feet; thickness
at the crown, 9.8 inches; at the springing line, 54.3 inches. The
chords of the ribs were made up of two 3-inch angles spaced
20 inches C. to C. The entire ironwork weighed 88,180 pounds
and the amount of concrete was 1346 cubic yards. The total cost
was only $13,700.

In building the arches, after the centering was in position,
the iron members were put in place and the concreting began.

U4

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The concrete was made of one part Portland cement and six
parts of sand and gravel for a layer of 10 to 12 inches thick. The
arch concrete was carefully rammed in layers at right angles
to radial lines, and especial care was taken in ramming the con-
crete that came below the arched bottom chords. The centering
was left undisturbed for thirty days after the last arch had been
finished, and the striking of the centers was commenced at the
two center arches. The bridge was tested by the application of
a uniform load of 82 pounds per square foot and also by a very
heavy live load, the maximum deflection being 0.138 inches and
the set 0.031 inches. For further descriptions see Engineering
News, November 16, 1893.

The Wunsch system of concrete-metal arches does not seem
to be an economical design. There is no arch ring proper, but
the entire arch, from the under surface to the pavement of the
roadway, is a massive monolithic mass of concrete. There are
no bridges of this type in the United States.

3. Monier Arch at Wildegg, Switzerland.

THE MELAN SYSTEM.

This style of concrete-steel construction was invented by
Joseph Melan, of Austria, in 1892, and was patented in the United
States the following year. It consists of curved I beams or lattice
girders imbedded vertically in the concrete of the arch ring and
abutments. These ribs are sometimes connected transversely at
their ends in the abutments by cross angles, and are sometimes
provided with individual anchor plates. If the bridge consists of
several arches, the ribs in each arch are, in some cases, inde-
pendent of those in adjacent arches, being connected only by
the concrete, but in the large bridge recently built at Topeka,
Kan., the ribs were riveted to a common plate at the piers.

The merits of this system were quickly recognized in this
country as well as in Europe. The result of such recognition has
been the erection of bridges of the Melan type in parks where a
handsome and esthetic design was desired, and the displacing of
iron and steel truss bridges where permanence was the quality
desired.

A REVIEW OF CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 115

Among the more important of the park bridges of the Melan
system constructed up to date is the Melan arch at Eden Park,
Cincinnati, designed and built by Fr. Von Emperger, C.E., in
1895. This arch has a span of 70 feet and a rise of 10 feet, and
carries an 18-foot roadway and two concrete sidewalks of 5 feet
each. The concrete (in the proportion 1 : 2 : 4) is 15 inches thick
at the crown and 48 inches at the haunches. The I beams are
9 inches deep, weighing 21 pounds per foot, spaced 36 inches
apart, and are supported by a cross-channel at each end. As this
arch is an excellent example of the Melan type, its construction
will be briefly described.

After the excavation had been made and the false work
erected, the bent ribs were laid, splices and cross-angles fastened
and the concrete in the abutments started so as to inclose the ends
of the ribs. Then wing walls a'nd pillars were built to train the
workmen, who were common laborers, paid at the rate of 13^
cents an hour.

The arch was built in two longitudinal halves, each of them
started on both sides and closed up to the center in one day of
twelve working hours.

On completion of the arch proper and the removal of the
boards on the face walls, the filling of the bridge was put in and
completed to the level of the coping stone, where the work was
stopped for the winter. In the spring the false work was struck
and the work completed.

After the removal of the false work the filling was compressed
with a 15-ton roller, a very trying test, as the filling at the crown
was not more than 6 inches thick over the concrete. See Engineer-
ing News, October 3, 1895. Other examples of this style of bridge
constructed in parks are:

The two-arch bridge at Hyde Park, N. Y., on the estate of
F. W. Vanderbilt, designed by the Melan Arch Construction
Company and built by W. T. Hiscox & Co., both of New York.
For description see Engineering Record of January 14, 1899.

The Franklin bridge in Forest Park, St. Louis, Mo., which
has a span of 60 feet and a rise of 15 feet 6T3e inches. The ring is
11 inches thick at the crown, increasing to 30 inches at the spring-
ing line, and has imbedded therein eleven 8-inch, 18-pound steel I
beams, spliced at the crown and spaced 3 feet C. to C.
See Engineering Record, December 10, 1898.

The Melan arch at Stockbridge, Mass., designed and con-
structed by Fr. Von. Emperger, C.E. This is a 7-foot foot-
bridge of 100 feet span and 10 feet rise. The ring is 9 inches

n6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

thick at the crown and 30 inches at the haunches, and has im-
bedded four 7-inch I beams spaced 28 inches apart and raised 2
inches from the soffit. See Engineering News, November 7, 1895.
As examples of the Melan arch built by cities for carrying
streets across rivers may be mentioned the concrete-steel arch
bridge at Topeka, Kan., across the Kansas River; the bridge at
Paterson, N-. J., carrying West street across the Passaic River;
and two concrete-steel bridges in Indianapolis across Fall Creek
at Illinois street and Meridian street.

T

Details of

Iron Construction

*W

JL

iffl

Fig. 4. Wunsch Arch.

The Topeka bridge is the largest concrete-metal bridge ever
built in the country. It was designed by Keepers & Thacher,
civil engineers, and consists of five spans, — one 125 feet, two no
feet and two 97^ feet, — and carries a roadway 26 feet wide and
two 7-foot sidewalks. It replaces an old six-span, iron truss
structure of considerably greater length. In each span twelve
lattice girders placed 3 feet C. to C. are imbedded in the concrete,

A REVIEW OF CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 117

by which they are completely surrounded. See Engineering News,
April, 2, 1896, tor further description.

The West street bridge at Paterson, N. J., consists of three
arches of 88.25 to 89 feet clear span, each arch having a rise of
9.5 feet. The concrete of the arch rings is 15 inches in thickness
at the crown, gradually increasing to 66 inches at the skew backs
and imbedding 10- inch I beams weighing 25 pounds per foot,
spaced 3 feet C. to C. The bridge was designed by the Melan
Arch Construction Company and Mr. Edwin Thacher, member
of the American Society of Civil Engineers, and is an example
of the adaptability of the concrete-steel arch to locations where
the voussoir stone arch is not practical. The latter would hardly
have been designed with a rise less than one-sixth the span,
with the foundation available at this place, whereas the bridge
built has a rise of only 1-9.4 of the span. A voussoir arch at the
location would have given either objectionable grades on the
approaches, perhaps with considerable property damages, or
would have obstructed the river channel with several more piers,
to an extent prohibitory. See Engineering Nezus, March 16, 1899.

In Indianapolis the Board of Public Works, after considering
the replacing of many of the old iron and steel bridges by new
structures of a more permanent character, deemed it desirable to
construct stone bridges across Fall Creek at Illinois street and
Meridian street It was first contemplated to have these bridges
built entirely of natural stone, but in order to insure a greater
waterway without greatly increasing the width of the stream
it was found to be more economical to construct these bridges
on the Melan system.

Both of these bridges are skew bridges, the lines of the piers
and abutments making an angle of 70 ° with the street line. Each
bridge is composed of three arches of 74 feet span, the piers
being 8 feet wide and the abutments 20 feet. The thickness of
the arch rings at the crown is 16 inches and at the piers 60 inches.
Ten-inch I beams, 25 pounds per foot, spaced 3 feet C. to C, are
imbedded in the concrete of the arches. The beams are bent at
the mills to conform to the plan of the arch and were shipped in
two sections. After they had been placed in position on the cen-
tering they were spliced at the center by means of top and side
plates and thoroughly riveted. See Municipal Engineering for
February, 1901.

A complete list of the Melan bridges built in the United
States up to the vear 1899 may be found in the Polytechnic for
March, 1899.

n8

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

THE THACHER SYSTEM.

This system can best be described by quoting from the article
entitled "Concrete-Steel Bridge Construction," written by Mr.
Edwin Thacher, member of the American Society of Civil Engi-
neers, in the Engineering News, September 21, 1899.

"Steel bars in pairs, spaced at proper distances apart and
spliced at convenient intervals, are imbedded in the concrete near
the outer and inner surfaces of the arch, and extend well into the
abutments or piers. The bars of each pair have no connection
with each other, except through the concrete, but each bar is
provided with projections, preferably rivet heads of extra height,

:?■:••■::•:

■'■ „ i *'.'■,'•_■ 4-

'- '-'.O-t v *

£■"' Hv- '.'•-* •'

I- ';- -" ;.*• •'; v" v "S.'~- V*>/-i '- •■.o.V %?.

PaP^^P

At Abutment ^■'■'■^:l:\ At Cent rr

Transverse Section

Fig. 5. Melan Arch.

but which may be lugs, dowels or bolts, spaced at short inter-
vals, thereby providing a mechanical reinforcement of the adhe-
sion between the steel and the concrete, so that a complete crush-
ing or shearing of the concrete must take place before a separa-
tion can be effected. The bars act as the flanges of a beam to
assist the concrete in resisting the thrusts and bending moments
to which the arch is subjected. The shearing stresses are small,
and the concrete is amply able to take them many times over."
Continuing, Mr. Thacher says: "The principal advantages which
this system offers over those previously mentioned may be stated
as follows : It gives a larger moment of inertia, and consequently

A REVIEW OF CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 119

greater strength for the same amount of steel. In the Melan
system I beams are usually used, which, if buried in the con-
crete, are necessarily less in depth throughout than the depth at
the crown, and as the greatest bending moments are always at or
near the spring, the use of I beams gives the less strength and
reserve of strength where the greatest is needed. If the beam is
made of angles with lattice connections, as at Topeka, it is not
practicable even then to follow out the lines of greatest strength,
as the beams become too deep and unwieldy. A more reliable
connection is secured between the steel and concrete than in any
system that depends on adhesion alone." Mr. Thacher was
granted a patent on his design January 10, 1899.

Air. Thacher's paper also enters into some of the details of
calculations of the Thacher and Melan systems, which I will not
repeat here.

The most important bridges of this system constructed up
to date are the new arch bridges at Niagara Falls, connecting
the mainland with Green Island and the latter with Goat Island.
The bridge between the mainland and Green Island consists of
three spans, the two end spans being each 103^ feet long, with
10 feet rise, while the center span has a length of no feet and a
rise of n^ feet. The arch ring in the end spans is 38 inches thick
at the crown and 70 inches at the springing line, and in the
center span 40 inches at the crown and 76 inches at the springing
line. Imbedded in the concrete, spaced 3 feet C. to C. and 3
inches from the intrados and extrados are pairs of flat steel bars,
connected vertically by bolts at intervals of about 32 inches. The
concrete in the arches between skew backs is composed of one
part Portland cement, two parts sand and four parts broken
stone or gravel, which passed through a i^-inch ring, including
the total product of the crusher between 1^ inches and \ inch.
For the foundation abutments, piers and span-drills the concrete
is made in the proportion 1 : 3 : 6. Limestone facing covers the
entire structure, including the piers and abutments below water,
only excepting the soffit of the arches between the ring stones
on each face and that portion of the abutments buried in the
banks. In building, the concrete for the arches was started simul-
taneously from both ends of the arch and laid in longitudinal
sections so as to inclose at least two ribs.

This bridge is of great architectural beauty, and adds much to
the appearance of the state reservation at this point. For fur-
ther description see Engineering News, December 6, 1900, and
Engineering Record, February 16, 1901.

120 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Other bridges built on this system are listed by Mr. Thacher
in his aforementioned article in Engineering News.

THE HENNEBIQUE SYSTEM.

But little information is to be found respecting this system
in English or American publications, as its employment in practice
has been confined almost entirely to France, and the writer has
not had access to the French publication entitled "Revue Tech-
nique."

In the discussion on Monier construction in the Journal of the
Western Society of Engineers, June, 1900, the Hennebique system
is described by Mr. Ralph Modjeski, member of the Western
Society of Civil Engineers, as follows :

"The Hennebique system, which is used very extensively in
France, has its principal application in floors of buildings, parti-

^ik^Sigi

Sectional. Side View

Fig. 6. Thacher Arch.

Trans. Section
at Center

tions, etc. The rods used here are much heavier than in the
Monier system. Two or more of the rods are placed lengthwise
near the bottom of the concrete beam, and are tied to the upper
portion of the beam and to the floor slabs by thin vertical bars."

"Computations for Ribbed Beams of Iron and Concrete on
the Hennebique System," a mathematical treatment of the pro-
portions for concrete girders with imbedded iron rods, is found
in the "Zeitschreift des Oesterreichischen Ingenieur- und Archi-
tekten-Yereines," September 15, 1899.

THE EXPANDED METAL SYSTEM.

Expanded metal has also been successfully applied to con-
crete in a manner somewhat similar to the application of the
netting of rods in the Monier system, both in floors and arch
bridges, but principally in floors.

The use of expanded metal in constructing fireproof floors,
partitions, etc., is too familiar to require description. Many tests
of slabs of concrete-expanded metal have been made in the last

A REVIEW OF CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 121

three years. The best literature on these tests and the records
of the tests themselves are found in the paper on "Steel Concrete
Construction," by Air. George Hill, associate member of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, and in the correspondence and
discussion of the same, in the "Transactions of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, June, 1898." The results, tables and
formulas in the paper and discussions were not entirely satisfactory,
and will not be repeated here.

An arch of 21 -foot span and 6- foot 8-inch rise, built at
Oconomowoc, Wis., for P. D. Armour, Jr., designed by Mr. C. F.
Hall. C.E., has imbedded in the concrete arch ring flat rods and
a sheet of expanded metal of Xo. 16 gage, 2^-inch mesh. See
Engineering News, October 19, 1899.

OTHER SYSTEMS.

A floor system that has been well tested experimentally bv
fire and excessive loads is the Roebling system. This system
consists essentially of an arch of woven wire netting springing
from the lower flanges of the floor beams and covered with a
bed of concrete, which is leveled up with the upper flanges of the
beams. The netting is strengthened by iron rods at intervals of
about nine inches each way. the wires being woven around the
rods so as to form one sheet of netting. See Engineering News,
July 18, 1895. The fire tests are described in Engineering News.
December 2, 1897.

There are other systems besides those above described, but
as they are not important and are not extensively employed in
practice, descriptions of them will be omitted.

THE AUSTRIAN SOCIETY TESTS.

This paper would be incomplete without some mention of
the tests of brick, concrete, Monier and Melan arches made by
the Austrian Society of Engineers. Tests to destruction were
made for spans of 4.43, 8.86, 13.3, 52.8 and 74.5 feet. A synopsis
of these tests is found in an article by Mr. Mansfield Merriman,
member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, in the
Engineering News, April 9, 1896. A more complete report ap-
pears in Engineering (London), February 21, 1896. These tests
demonstrated that the theory of elasticity gives the only solid
foundation for theoretic investigations, since the deformations
were practically proportional to the stress in all cases where the
elastic limits were not exceeded.

[15]

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS.

A factory building. A large monolithic factory building for
the Pacific Coast Borax Company at Constable Hook, Bayonne,
N. J., was designed and constructed by Mr. E. L. Ransome in
1898. The structure is built entirely of concrete reinforced by
steel rods. The design embraced the construction of solid con-
crete floors, supported on reinforced concrete beams and joists
and carried by hollow concrete walls and solid concrete columns
and beam-piers in the hollow concrete walls. The Ransome sys-
tem is employed throughout. See Engineering Record, July 30
and August 20, 1898.

Retaining walls. Concrete retaining walls reinforced by im-
bedded steel of different forms have been designed and built.
One employing the Hennebique system was constructed at the

»'■.■».-.■ -,■■-■ ".'-/■ -*■>•' ,■..'/.-■ - V -■»-■,- '->,fjr..'J-..\\,.'. I .>,!■. v.-,^ J- -'. ,.

.1^^^^^^^^^^

Fig. 7. Hennebique.

Paris Exposition of 1900. See Engineering News, February 15,
1900.

In making excavations for tall office buildings, retaining
walls have been constructed of concrete reinforced by horizontal
trusses of heavy lattice girders serving to give the wall strength
against flexure and transmit the pressure to the ends of the
longitudinal walls upon which they abutted. See Engineering
Record, June 18, 1898.

A concrete-steel retaining wall was built in Columbus, Ohio,
in 1900, by Mr. F. A. Bone, engineer of the Oregonia Bridge
Company, Oregonia. Ohio. His construction employs the prin-
ciple on which a tree depends for its stability. "The tensile
strains at the back of the wall are transmitted by the metal to
the concrete base, which is loaded by the earth and thus held clown
like the roots of a tree." See Engineering Record, November 10,
1900.

Roof of covered reservoirs. A new 25,000,000-gallon covered
reservoir now under construction for the Louisville Water Com-

A REVIEW OF CONCRETE-METAL CONSTRUCTION. 123

pany has a roof made up of groined concrete-metal arches, the
reinforcement consisting of the steel bars of the Thacher system.
The arches are supported by the division walls and concrete
pillars. The spans are approximately 19 feet with a rise of 3.8
feet, and the concrete is 6 inches thick at the crown and 36 inches
at the springing line in radial lines, and are constructed of Port-
land cement 1:2:4 concrete.' See Engineering News, January
10, 1901.

Concrete-steel ties. Steel and concrete ties have been tried
experimentally by the Pennsylvania Railroad in Chicago in one
of the main tracks. They were in the track ten months and were
then removed because of the failure of the device locking the rail
to the tie, although 10 out of the total 30 had cracked at the
end of seven months. The tie was patented by Mr. C. C. Harrel,
of Chicago, but afterward modified by Mr. J. J. Harrell, of Wil-
mington, Del. As described in the Engineering News of January
10, 1901, it is as follows: "The design is a combination of two
channel bars, seven feet long, forming the top and bottom of the
tie, separated by distance pieces, and braced under the rail seats
by vertical and inclined struts between the bars. A short piece
of channel iron forms the rail seat, and through this pass the
anchor bolts, the heads of which are under the lower channel bar.
The whole structure is imbedded in concrete, with the exception
of the rail seat. The rail rests on a shim or packing plate and is
secured by bolted clamps, filling the rail base and the edge of the
channel. The complete tie is 7 feet 8 inches long, 8 inches thick,
5 inches wide at the top and 8 inches at the bottom, the weight
being about 300 pounds."

The cost of the ties used was about $8 each, but it is believed
that the cost will be less than $1 each, if made in any quantity.

COMPARATIVE COST OF CONCRETE-STEEL BRIDGES.

In bidding on a bridge for Junction Hollow, Shenley Park,
Pittsburg, Pa., Keepers & Thacher bid on a Melan arch having
a clear span of 300 feet with a rise of 66 feet 2 inches, flanked by
70-foot and 61-foot spans, and having a width of 80 feet between
parapets. This bridge was 590 feet long and covered 47,200
square feet in clear between stone parapets, erected and paved
complete, ready for traffic, and their bid was about $7 per square
foot, only a trifle more than was paid for the steel arch which
was accepted and built.

In St. Louis the Council, having appropriated $5500 for con-
structing an arch bridge in Forest Park, Mr. John Dean, th3

124 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Engineer of the Park Department, prepared a plan for a concrete
arch bridge of 60 feet span. Fearing that the appropriation was
insufficient to provide for the structure as designed, the design
was sent to the Melan Arch Construction Company, of New
York. This company applied its system to Mr. Dean's design,
inserting steel J. beams in the ring and reducing the thickness
of the concrete. The contract was then awarded for the work
complete, exclusive of the roadway and sidewalk pavements, at
a price several hundred dollars less than the appropriation.

A very important feature of the cost of concrete-steel bridges
is that their first cost is their only cost, — a great advantage over
the steel bridges, which invariably require a constant outlay of
money for maintenance and depreciation.

In conclusion, while I realize that this paper has nothing
new to offer to the engineering public by collecting and putting
together the above data and information, it has been my aim to
make something that will be of utility to any one desiring a gen-
eral knowledge of concrete-metal construction. Considering the
great progress in concrete-metal construction and its present
popularity, its future seems very promising. Mr. George S. Mor-
ison, member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, is
quoted as saying: "I fully believe that we are now only at the
beginning of concrete construction, and that, if the results which
we hope for can be attained, with concrete structures with metal
structures inside, the time will come when this will be the one
method of building."

STEEL CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL OFFICE BUILDING. 125

THE STEEL SKELETON CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL
OFFICE BUILDING.

By J. S. Branne, Assoc. Mem. A. S. C. E. ; Member of the Engineers'

Club of St. Louis.

[Read before the Club, November 7, 1900.*]

The tall, skeleton construction building originated when the
modern city grew very large, so that the price of land in the busi-
ness heart of the city became very high, and in some cases the
land to be had was limited. Not being able to expand the build-
ing horizontally, it became necessary to increase the number of
stories. Up to seven or eight stories, stone or brick walls were
used ; but when it became necessary to put up a building of, let us
say, fifteen stories, it was found very expensive to make such walls
of sufficient thickness to sustain the superincumbent load ; and the
thick walls occupied too much space. Iron, being capable of sus-
taining a much greater load per square inch than stone or brick,
was then introduced as columns, either cast or wrought, carrying
the floor loads, and relieving the walls. Afterward a system of
wall girders was introduced at each floor, to carry the story height
of stone or brickwork, making each story self-supporting and carry-
ing the entire load, through the columns, to the footings or founda-
tions. The walls in all the stories could now be made of the mini-
mum thickness, giving the maximum floor space for each story.
The footings for the columns were at first made of stone or brick-
masonry resting on the soil, where this was solid ; and on piles,
where soft soil or even quicksand was encountered. Gradually
the stone or brick masonry in the footing disappeared, giving way
to steel and concrete, developing into our present-day grillage foot-
ings, of various kinds to suit various conditions. As the skeleton
constructions grew taller, and the wall thicknesses decreased, mak-
ing the entire structure lighter, the attention of architects and en-
gineers was called to the necessity of giving stability against the
overturning tendency of wind. This has been found to be a diffi-
cult matter. It is sometimes accomplished by rod-bracing, where
this is permissible; in other cases, by horizontal girder construction
and knee-braces; and sometimes by regular portal construction be-
tween adjoining columns. At present the use of iron in tall
building construction has almost disappeared, giving way to steel,
which now combines cheapness and strength.

^Manuscript received December 12, 1900 — Secretary, Ass n of Eng. Socs.

126

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The usefulness of the tall office building is apparent to all.
The business or professional man on the ground floor can easily
and quickly reach the one in tenth or twentieth story ; offices can be
had in the most desirable locations of the city at comparatively
low rent. Very often certain trades or professions flock to certain
buildings, where those engaged in them can easily reach each
other for consultation.

We now proceed to illustrate the steel skeleton construction of
high office buildings ; how the steel work is planned, for a certain
width, length and height of a building, and, for a certain lay-out
of the buildings, to suit the purposes and ideas of the owner and
architect, so as to combine strength and economy.

Under economy it is well to note that quite often the problem is
of such a character that a theoretical economy of steel cannot be
obtained. For instance, the columns must stand at certain places to

Fig. 1

suit the interior space arrangement of the building, or the irregu-
larities of the lot and the surroundings. Thus more restrictions
are laid upon the structural engineer than upon the bridge engineer,
who can, generally may, consult only economy in determining the
depth of truss or girder, the section of the various members and
the spacing of towers or bents in viaducts. To the structural en-
gineer many of these features are laid down in advance ; even to
the depth of the floor beams, where a few inches in each floor
amount to something considerable in a building of several stories.

In the following paper a certain size of building has been
chosen and the steel work for it has been determined. By thus
referring to a definite set of plans and elevations, each class of
work treated can be clearly itemized. Fig. A, Plate i, shows
the front elevation of the building adopted for this paper. The
lot is 50 x 100 feet, and the building is 16 stories high in front
and 13 stories in rear. The basement is 12 feet deep in front and 15
feet in rear, where the heating and lighting apparatus and the eleva-
tor plant are placed. The first story is 17 feet high, and all the

STEEL CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL OFFICE BUILDING. 127

other stories 12 feet high, from floor line to floor line. All the cur-
tain walls (outside walls in building) are 13 inches thick, and in-
side partitions 4 inches thick, built either of hollow tile or expanded
metal furring on vertical channel studding, plastered on both sides.
The floor is of concrete, of which several excellent styles are on the
market. Xo shelf angles will be required on the webs of the floor
beams, as the concrete will be built up from the flange of the beam
to the springing line of the arch ; and whatever ties are needed to
keep the floor beams from spreading are imbedded in the concrete
arch. (See Fig. 1.) Expanded metal ceilings, heavily plastered,
suspended from light channels, rest on the bottom flange of the
floor beams.

All deep floor girders and all interior columns (the wall col-
umns have a brick inclosure) are protected by fire-clay tile, or other
•arrangement to keep off the flames in case of fire. The steel work
in the foundations will have three or four coats of paint and then
be bedded completely in cement to prevent rusting.

The following dead and live loads have been used :

Per Square Foot.

Number of Floor.

Live load.

Dead load.

Calculate
Beams for

Calculate
Girders for

"Roof

30 lbs.

60 "

60 "

IOO "

150 "

50 lbs.

75 "
90 "
90 "
50 "

80 lbs.

135 "
150 "
190 "
200 "

74 lbs.
123 "
138 "
170 "
170 "

Sixteenth floor to third floor
Second floor

Sidewalk

The following unit stresses have been used :

Bearing on soil, due to dead load, 2 tons per square foot.
Bearing on soil, due to live load, 5 tons per square foot.

Rolled beams, tension or compression flange, 16,000 pounds
per square inch.

Built girders (plates and angles), tension flange, 13,000
pounds per square inch ; compression flange same as tension flange.
Shear across web, 7500 pounds per square inch.

Z-bar columns, 12 feet long, compression 12,000 pounds per
square inch for concentric and eccentric loads.

Z-bar columns, 15 and 17 feet long, 12,000 pounds concentric
and 10,000 pounds eccentric.

Shop rivets, 10,000 pounds shear and 20,000 pounds bearing.

Field rivets, 7500 pounds shear and 15,000 pounds bearing.

Brickwork assumed to weigh 125 pounds per cubic foot.
For wind load allow 33 per cent, higher values for columns and 50
per cent, higher values for wind-bracing girders.

128 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The steel work for this building is divided into several classes,
each of which, so far as possible, will be treated separately,
i. Foundations.

2. Floors.

3. Columns.

4. Wind bracing.

5. Typical details.

I. FOUNDATIONS.

Fig. C, Plate 1, shows the general arrangement of foundation
grillage beams under columns marked No. 1 to No. 30, inclusive.

Before determining the size of any footing, the soil should be
tested by digging or drilling to a depth of 20 feet below the deep-
est point of the proposed foundation. If, unfortunately, quicksand
or soft soil is met with, piles must be driven. Old wells, in other-
wise good soil, can be filled with broken stone and concrete well
tamped. In the present paper the assumption is that good, solid
soil was found, capable of resisting a dead load (weight of steel
work, floors and walls) of 2 tons per square foot, without appreci-
able settlement. In this case the only obstacle was that the owners
of adjoining buildings would not allow their walls to be under-
pinned, so that the footings for the wall columns of this building
could be built partly on the other side of the lot line. This neces-
sitated the introduction of cantilever girders between the following
columns :

1 to 4 13 to 14 19 to 20

2 " 5 15 " 16 21" 22

3 " 6 17 " 18 23 " 24

In determining the size of a footing, the influence of the dead
load, always present, and that of the live load, variable in general
and again variable as to wall columns and interior columns, should
be considered separately. For example :

Column No. 2.

-n> 1 1 , ) Total, 298 tons ; at 2 tons per square

Dead load = 244 tons ( ,..,..

T • , , V foot, this will give 149 square feet

Live load = 54 tons ( . . .

) (size of footing).

Live load removed, pressure per square foot will be 244 -j- 149
= 1.64 tons, a decrease of 18 per cent.

Colu inn No. 11.

!->.,,, „ , 1 Total, 406 tons ; at 2 tons per square

Dead load = 295 tons I

t • t , , . V foot, this will give 203 square feet

j (size of footing).

STEEL CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL OFFICE BUILDING. 129

Live load removed, pressure per square foot will be 295 -4- 203
= 1.45 tons, a decrease of 22^2 per cent.

Clearly, in the long run, column No. 2 will settle more than
column Xo. 1 1 .

The writer proposes to give different values for live and for
dead loads. In this case 2 tons have been used for dead loads and
5 tons for live loads.

Col 11 mil No. 2 will then have 244 -4- 2 -f- 54 -h- 5 = about 133
square feet ( size of footing) ; per square foot 2.24 tons.

Live load removed, pressure per square foot will be 244 -~- 133
= 1.83 tons, a decrease of 18 per cent.

Column No. 11 will then have 295 -^ 2 -f 111 -^ 5 = about
170 square feet ( size of footing) ; per square foot 2.39 tons.

Live load removed, pressure per square foot will be 295 -4-170
= 1.75 tons, a decrease of 2y per cent.

Grouping the results in tabular form, we have :

Dead and Live Loads at 2 Tons per Square Foot.

Column
Number.

Pressure per Square Foot,

due to Dead and Live

Loads.

Pressure per Square Foot,
due to Dead Loads only.

Difference in Pressure.

2
II

2 tons
2 "

I.64 tons
I.45 "

0. 19 tons

Dead Loads at 2 Tons, Live Loads at 5 Tons per Square Foot.

Column Pr"f^PerQ^u"fFoot' Pressure per Square Font, ,.
Number. due to Dead and Live due to Dead Loads onlv. Dl

Loads

2

II

2.24 tons
2.39 »

I.83 tons
i-75 "

fterence in Pressure.

0.15 or
O.08

The maximum difference in pressure on soil, due to two differ-
ent columns at one and the same time, evidently occurs when the
dead and live loads are treated alike, and when only the dead loads
act. Where different allowances are made for dead and for live
loads, there is less difference between the pressures on the soil,
caused by two columns at the same time.

It has been urged by some engineers that it would be more
reasonable to consider dead loads only, and to figure so low a pres-
sure per square foot of soil that the added live load would but
slightly increase the pressure, thus reducing the differences between
the pressures exerted by various columns at the same time.

As a general rule, the pressures exerted by interior columns
fluctuate more than those of wall columns, the latter having to
carry the constant wall load in addition to the concrete floors;

130 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

whilst the interior columns carry only the concrete floors, and are
therefore more greatly affected by the live load.

Example i. Footing Under Column No. n.
Dead load = 295 tons ; 295 -=- 2 = 148 ) Total, 170.

Live load =111 tons; 11 1 -=- 5 = 22 (about) \ (Square feet.)

Pier outline 13 feet by 13 feet.

Beams in lower layer are placed 20 inches apart, requiring- 9
9-inch beams, 21 pounds per foot, 12 feet 6 inches long.

Beams in middle layer are placed 15 inches apart, requiring 7
18-inch beams, 55 pounds per foot, 13 feet 4 inches long.

Beams in top layer are placed 9 inches apart, requiring 3 20-
inch beams, 65 pounds per foot, 7 feet 6 inches long.

These beams are figured by finding out how much pressure per
lineal foot comes on each, by dividing the column load by the num-
ber of lineal feet in each layer. One end is fixed, the other end
is free and the load is uniform. The beams are held together by
34-inch round tie rods, and properly spaced by gas pipe separators.
The concrete should completely fill the spaces between the beams,
and surround them at least 6 inches beyond their extreme ends, to
prevent rusting.

Example 2. Footing Under Columns 2 and 5.

This is a case where, if the footing under column No. 2 were
placed symmetrically, it would extend under the neighbor's wall;
but, as this is not permitted, a cantilever girder has been placed,
reaching from column No. 2 to column No. 5, as shown on plan
No. 3.

The loads from column No. 2 are as follows :

Dead load, 244 tons ; live load, 54 tons ; total, 298 tons. Plac-
ing the center of bearing of footing No. 2 5 feet from lot line, we
have :

298 X l9 = V X 14; V= 404 (tons), where V = the reac-
tion at footing No. 2.

298 X 5 = Vj X U ; Vj = 106 (tons), where \\ = the reac-
tion at column No. 5.

Further considering footing No. 2, we have :

Pressure to provide for 404 tons, of which 330 tons are due to

dead load and 74 tons are due to live load.

^o -f- 2 = 16s )

00 D , , A Total, 180 square feet.

74^-5= 15 (about) I

We find, according to plan, a lower layer of 7 beams, i2-inchr
31^ pounds ; a middle layer of 7 beams, 15-inch, 42 pounds, and a
top layer of 4 beams, 20-inch, 65 pounds.

STEEL CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL OFFICE BUILDING. 131

Further considering footing No. 5, we have :

Column load, 279 tons. Subtracting the upward reaction
(produced by column No. 2) = 106 tons, we have only to provide
for 173 tons, of which 120 tons are dead load and 53 tons live load.
120 -^- 2 = 60; 53 -f 5 = 11 about. Total, 71 square feet. We
find, according to plan, a lower layer of 7 beams, 9-inch, 21 pounds,
7 feet long, and an upper layer of 4 beams, 15-inch, 42 pounds, 10
feet long.

Note that the ''live load" referred to in this class (1) includes
75 per cent, of the reactions produced in the columns by the wind
pressure on the building (see Class 4). This ratio corresponds to
the one used in proportioning the columns (see Class 3).

Cantilever Box-Girder.

This girder rests on footing No. 2 and footing No. 5, and
transmits the load at column No. 2 to these two footings. The
girder is made of 2 48-inch web plates, 3 24-inch cover plates on
top and 3 on bottom, and 24-inch end cover plates, forming a com-
plete box. At the points of loading, diaphragms are introduced for
the sake of stiffness (see plan, elevation and section of girder, 2-5,
Fig. D, Plate 1). It will be seen that the maximum bending mo-
ment occurs at the center of footing No. 2 ; that the shears are con-
stant from column No. 2 to footing No. 2 and from column No. 5
to footing No. 2.

The cantilever is a very expensive feature of the building and
should be avoided ; and every effort should be made to obtain per-
mission to underpin and build individual footings under adjacent
walls.

2. FLOORS.

The construction of the several floors and for the roof at 13th
floor level, and that of the roof over the 16th story, are shown on
plans, while the "architect's plans," or those of the various floors,
showing the arrangements of walls, windows and doors, stairways,
elevators, etc., are shown on plans. The most important floor is
the "typical office floor," Fig. F, Plate II, there being 10 such in
this building, — viz, the 3d to the 12th floor, inclusively. As noted,
the loads assumed were as follows:

Live load, 60 lbs. per

square foot.
Dead load, 75 lbs.

per square foot.

Beams figured for
135 lbs. per square
foot.

Girders (carriers
supporting two or
more beams ).
Dead load + 80
per cent, of live
load — 123 lbs.
per square foot.

132 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The wall girders carry the floor loads plus the wall loads, and
the latter are assumed at 125 pounds per superficial square foot.
1 he walls are 13 inches thick. The walls, being cut up by windows,
use 75 per cent, of a solid wall contained in panel over wall girder.
In the case of the back wall, where there are few or no windows,
use the entire wall, as though solid. Figure walls, on this basis, as
uniformly loading the wall girders.

As to live loads, taken at 60 pounds per square foot, these con-
sist of office furniture of various kinds, and human loads. Re-
garding the latter, Professor Burr, in his treatise on bridge and
roof trusses, states that on a highway bridge a dense crowd of
people will produce a load of 85 pounds per square foot. The late
Mr. Hatfield, of New York city, found by experiment that it was
hardly possible to exceed 70 pounds per square foot. Professor
Merriman says that for highway bridges anywhere from 70 to 100
pounds per square foot may be taken. In an office building such a
crowd can hardly be placed on each and every square foot. Con-
sidering desks, chairs, etc., it is the writer's opinion that 60 pounds
are quite sufficient.

As to dead loads, we have a concrete arch of an average thick-
ness of 4 inches, a filling between nailing strips of 1 inch, a plastered
ceiling 1 inch thick ; total, 6 inches, of an average weight of 80
pounds per cubic foot, or 40 pounds per square foot. Add to this
nailing strips and flooring (J/g inch thick), weighing 10 pounds
per square foot. The weight of the partitions, in a 12-foot story,
divided into offices as noted on plan No. n, amounts to 15 pounds
per square foot of floor. The weight of steel construction, 10
pounds per square foot of floor.

SUMMARY.

Concrete floor and plastered ceiling 40 lbs. per square foot.

Nailing strips and flooring 10

Partitions 15

Steel construction 10

Total 75 lbs. per square foot.

The assumption that the girders, in the sense used here, are
safe at 80 per cent, live load presupposes that all the beams fram-
ing into the girders have not their full live loads at the same time.

Considering a typical panel, as, for instance, that between
columns Nos. 5, 6, 9 and 8, it will be found by trial that the most
economical system requires 10-foot arches as shown on Fig. E,
Plate II. This gives 12-inch, 31 ^ pounds floor beams, and 15-

COLUMN SCHEDULE, IN INCHES.
Number of Column.

CONSTRUCTION OF TALL OFFICE BU

170. cf

i

2

3

A

5

6

7

3

B

10

11

13

,3

14

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17

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25

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28

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STEEL CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL OFFICE BUILDING. 133

inch, 60 pounds floor girders. An 18-inch, 55 pounds beam would
be equally cheap, and stirrer, but its use would involve the loss of 3
inches of head room, amounting to 3 or 4 feet in the entire building.
In designing floor beams and girders, the deflection must be taken
into account. If the deflection amounts to more than -5^-5- of the
span, it is apt to crack a plastered ceiling. However, it must also
be remembered that, when plaster is applied, all the dead load is
already in place, and has produced its deflection, so that we have
to consider only the deflection due to the live loads. The deflection
of a symmetrical shape, for example, a beam, is

For uniform loading — -r — -—r^—
384. E.I

pf
For loading concentrated — . _ _ —

48. E.I

at center, where

\Y = total uniformly distributed load in pounds.

P = total concentrated load in pounds.

1 = length of beam in inches.

E = modulus of elasticity (for medium steel E = 29,000,000
pounds).

I — moment of inertia.

If \Y — 2P (equal maximum bending moments), the deflec-
tion under the concentrated load is only 80 per cent, of that under
the uniform load.

The wall girder (6-9 ) will be made of an 18-inch, 55 pounds
beam and a 12 x -^--inch plate riveted to its top flange, giving a
good bearing for the 13-inch wall. This plate should be riveted
to the beam, thereby increasing its inertia. In the case of another
wall girder ( 20-24 ) > in addition to the top plate, a bottom plate is
riveted on, over halt the length of the beam. This effects a saving
in material ; as, by merely giving the 12 x ^-inch top plate bolts to
hold it in position, a 20-inch. 650 pounds beam would be required;
and coming under the same price classification (fitted beams).
(See Figs. 2 and 3.)

Beams at stair landings are figured as though the stairs were
fully loaded. Beams at elevator openings are strong enough to
carry the regular floor loads, and, in addition, a slight weight due to
the elevator inclosures, guides, etc.

It will be noted that the transverse beams between columns
are built of plates and angles, serving at the same time as wind-
bracing girders, under which class they will be treated later on.

Whatever has been said about the typical office floor refers,,
with slight variations, to all other floors.

134

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The first floor is figured for a live load of ioo pounds per
square foot, and a dead load of 90 pounds per square foot. This
increase of live load, as compared with typical office floor, is due
to the fact, that more persons are liable to congregate on a floor
devoted to store purposes than on an office floor. Add to this the
sometimes heavy loading of dry goods, counters, etc.

The increase in dead load is due to an extra heavy flooring for
store room. The beams in the sidewalk are figured for 200 pounds
per square foot, dead and live loads.

The second floor is figured for a live load of 60 pounds per
square foot, and a dead load of 90 pounds per square foot, due to
a marble ceiling over the first story. It will be noticed that the
light court commences here, taking in the space between columns
Nos. 4, 14, 13, 25 on one side and 6, 15, 16, 28 on the other.

Plate rivetted to beam

"Rivets flattened to

give better bearing

for walls.

., /Plate rivetted to
-13-Uall-^./ beam

Pi I

IS \l
(Walt, Gird

K-GU-^G'/i-ti

Fig.

These spaces are finished with glass, in which is imbedded
24-inch mesh steel wire netting, laid between tees 24 inches apart
on centers.

The thirteenth floor is really, in part, a sloping roof, for rear of
building, between columns 1, 3, 12 and 10, and, in part, a regular
floor, between column's 10, 21, 24 and 12. The roof is figured for a
live load of 30 pounds and a dead load of 50 pounds per square
foot. The floor is figured for the same loads as the typical office
floor. The roof slopes toward the rear ^4 mcn per foot. The
roof is formed by spanning concrete arches between beams, and
giving to the surface several coats of asphalt and gravel.

The fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth floors are like the
thirteenth floor.

The roof, over the sixteenth story, between columns 10, 21, 24,
12, is made like the one at thirteenth floor level between columns
1,3, 12 and 10. On the roof is a dog house, or a brick inclosure,

STEEL CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL OFFICE BUILDING. 135

12 feet high, located over elevators and main stairway, and covered
with a slate roof. The purpose of this little house is to give a cov-
ering for the elevators, with head room enough to place sheaves and
other fixtures for the elevator cars ; also to give an exit to the roof,
thus terminating the main stairway in a fireproof door leading to
the roof at the very front of the building ; and, extending for a few
feet to each side, toward the rear, is a 5-foot projection for a terra
cotta cornice. The terra cotta will be carried by 4-inch beams, 30
inches apart, again carried by main girders 21 to 24 and 8-inch
beams parallel to the girders. The method of connecting the floor
beams and the girders to the columns is shown in Fig. H, Plate III,
of "General Details." Beam is connected to beam by ''connection
angles," standardized by leading manufacturers into 6 or 7 different
kinds to suit all sizes of beams and channels. These connections
are designed for the largest loads that can be expected on the ordi-
nary spans of beams. All connections should be riveted.

3. COLUMNS.

The columns carry the entire weight, including dead and live
loads, and the wind pressure, into the footings, these again dis-
tributing said loads on the soil. The aim, as explained under foot-
ings, is to have an equal pressure per square foot of soil at the same
time for all footings, insuring an even settlement. The columns
adopted in this building are "Z-bar columns" (Fig. 4), very exten-
sively used of late years ; they are made of 4 Z bars and 1 web plate.
Where this section will not suffice, extra plates are riveted on, form-
ing a closed column. Where the closed column occurs, all the
paint specified should be applied before riveting up or assembling.
The columns rest either on the top layer of grillage beams in the
footings, or on cantilever girders, to which latter they should be
riveted, if possible ; and, if not, bolted. The cantilever girders are
24 inches wide, and the grillage beams of the top layer are spaced
9 inches on centers ; thus all base plates can be made 24 by 24
inches and ^4 incn thick. The columns are joined, one section on
top of the other, in such a manner as to secure an equal and com-
plete transmission of loads from story to story and finally into the
footings. Fig. H, Plate III, shows a typical column splice, a 10-
inch column resting on a 12-inch column. The top of the lower
and the bottom of the upper column are planed, and a l/2 -inch butt
plate is placed between them. Then there are vertical splice plates,
}& inch thick, and fillers to make up the different widths of shafts.
Generally the column shaft is spliced at every other floor, and the
adjacent columns must break joints ; that is, they must not be

J 3!->

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

spliced at the same floors. For instance, column No. 7 is spliced at
the third, fifth and seventh floors, etc. ; then columns Nos. 4 and 10
are spliced at the fourth, sixth and eighth floors, and so on. This is
supposed to add to the stiffness of the structure, whereas it renders
the erection more difficult. For intermediate columns, connections
for beams and girders are generally concentric, but for wall col-
umns this is rarely possible, as the latter must be set in far enough
from the face of the wall to get at least one brick thickness outside ;
while wall girders are located at centers of walls. Any one of the
floor plans will illustrate this, and detail plans Nos. 13 and 14 show
connections in detail. Fig. H, Plate III, shows concentric connec-
tions of 15-inch floor girders, beams resting on bracket and held on
top by angle lug. Fig. I, Plate III, shows connections to column
No. 15 at sixth floor, where wall girders are Gl/2 inches eccentric
with column.

H

rJ

J

Fig. 4:

r>

"^1

r*1

f^

*»i

0 '

Fig.

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

As to the proportioning of the columns, the following rules
have been used :

(a) Proportion for entire dead load.

(b) Proportion for live load according to a "sliding scale,"
giving top story or attic columns full load, and basement columns
80 per cent, of all the live loads carried into them. For inter-
mediate stories interpolate ; thus, in a 16-story building, a sixth-
story column would be proportioned for 88 per cent, of all live load
above that floor. This is an entirely arbitrary ratio, and is recom-
mended by the St. Louis Architectural Club, and incorporated into
the building laws of St. Louis, dated August 1, 1898. It is based
on the supposition that all floors are not at the same time loaded to
the extent specified. As to permissible stress per square inch, for
medium steel 12,000 pounds has been used for both concentric and
eccentric loading for short columns (12 feet). For longer col-
umns, use 10,000 pounds, in order to allow for eccentric loading.
For wind load, raise the values by 33 per cent., — that is, use 16,000
pounds or take 75 per cent, of the wind loads and use 12,000
pounds. See also (4) "Wind Bracing," below. Note that the
eccentric loading does not accumulate downward through the build-

STEEL CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL OFFICE BUILDING. 137

ing. Hence, all the eccentric loading carried by any one column is
simply whatever load is brought into it at the floor immediately
above. Thus, for large columns, the eccentric loading has a rela-
tively smaller influence, the inertia of the section being large.

Other column sections quite frequently used are the "Phcenix"
column (Fig. 5) and ordinary channel columns (Fig. 6) (composed
of 2 channel bars, or of channels and plates). The "Gray" column
(Fig. 7), made ot angles, and having its outline section constant
from basement to roof, has been patented and considerably used.
The writer, however, prefers the "Z" or the "Phcenix" column, be-
cause in them the loads are almost instantly transmitted into the
entire body of column.

The accompanying schedule for Z-bar columns gives the size
of each column, from basement' to roof. Note how the column
splices are staggered (or joints broken). The 8-inch column is
the smallest used, smaller sections being more difficult to handle
in the shop.

4. WIND BRACING.

The pressure, in pounds per square foot, for which a building
should be calculated is very often fixed at 30, and is supposed to be
applied to the entire surface, from sidewalk level to cornice. If
the pressure be called P, and the velocity in miles per hour V, it
has been claimed that

V2
P = —

and also that P = -

100

There is quite a difference in opinion between scientific men
and engineers in regard to the relation between the velocity of the
wind and the pressure it exerts on a vertical surface, of larger or
smaller extent, and at a larger or smaller height ; also as to the
continuity of such pressure.

Mr. C. Shaler Smith, in his paper on "Wind Pressure upon
Bridges," read before the American Society of Civil Engineers on
December 5, 1880, cites a few examples of actual results, and then
calculates what pressure could produce such results.

In a violent storm in 1871, a locomotive was overturned at
East St. Louis. This feat represented a wind pressure of 93
pounds per square foot of actual surface.

He also cites numerous cases of car derailments when the

pressure required would be 30^2 pounds per square foot of actual

surface. He gives, as a general opinion, that 30 pounds per

square foot is enough for an average truss bridge (about 150 feet

:6

200

V2

138 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

long ) as he knows of only one case where the path of the tornado
was over 60 feet wide.

In the discussion of Mr. Smith's paper it was contended that
anemometers had shown as high as 90 pounds pressure per square
foot ; and the opinion is expressed that this high figure may be
caused by the shock, or impact of the oncoming storm.

The building code of New York city, adopted October 10,
1899, calls for 30 pounds horizontal wind pressure for every square
foot exposed ; also, that the overturning moment of the wind shall
be equal to, or less than, 75 per cent, of the moment of stability
of the structure. It further requires that "If the resisting mo-
ment of the ordinary materials of construction, such as masonry,
partitions, floors, connections, are not sufficient to resist the mo-
ment of distortion due to wind pressure, in any direction," wind
bracing must be put in. The building laws of St. Louis call for
30 pounds per square foot, from sidewalk level to extreme top of
building.

It is well to note that, up to the fifth or sixth floor level, build-
ings generally are protected by adjoining or nearby structures.
A building offers a large surface, and, according to most persons
who have studied this subject, the large surface does not receive,
over its entire extent, the intensity of pressure that a small surface
receives. In the opinion of the writer, 30 pounds per square foot
for the entire surface is enough for a building such as that de-
scribed in this paper.

The best and cheapest method of bracing is by means of rods,
running diagonally between columns, from top to bottom. But
in most cases this is entirely out of the question, as it will inter-
fere with free passage from room to room, and along the corridors.
This is especially objectionable in the first story, which often is
thrown into one room, as a store. Another method is to use a deep
girder, with knee braces at the ends, connecting it with the col-
umns, and relying on the resistance of the girders to bending.
Again, knee braces quite often become undesirable when there is
no convenient wall or partition to hide them, and in this latter
case have been used plate girders, as deep as possible, connected to
columns by enough rivets to transmit into columns the end shears
due to wind loads and dead and live loads, and to resist the
couple described later (see Fig. 9 or Fig. 12). This latter is the
system used in this building, and is illustrated in Fig. J, Plate I,
with a detailed connection to column shown in Fig. H, Plate III.

Fig. J, Plate I, shows the wind-bracing system between col-
umns 4, 5, 6 or 7, 8, 9. The plate girders are 30 inches deep, up to

STEEL CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL OFFICE BUILDING. 139

and including the sixth floor; while the remainder are only 24
inches deep. These girders act both as floor beams in their re-
spective floors, and as wind-bracing girders. The connection to
the Z-bar column is indicated in detail in Fig. H, Plate III. The
gusset plates at the columns should be brought down if necessary
below girder to get enough rivets. In a narrow building: the col-
umns should be so placed as to bring the web plate of the column
perpendicular to the long axis of building. This makes easier and
more direct connections between girders and columns. Sometimes
the gusset plate is run through the column, forming part of it.
In the present case connection angles are used, fastening the girders
to the face of the column. This is more economical and requires

Sheur OViOO^

Wind

-16-0-

JS

iith Floor

>>iQ

yith Floor

Wind ~Br.uii.nff Girder

-10-0-

Fuj. 8

one planed joint less. The method used for calculating sections
of bracing girders is as follows, using system 4, 5, 6 as an illustra-
tion:

Find the wind load at each floor (being equal to number of
square feet transferred into bracing system at floor multiplied by
30). If the question is to determine section of girder at fifth
floor, add the wind load from roof to fifth floor, inclusive, amount-
ing in this case to 61,200 pounds. (See Fig. 8.)

With the bracing girders properly riveted in place, the column
system 4, 5, 6 is supposed to be rigid, so as to act as one piece, and
so that all shears are ultimately carried into the footings, being
transferred from the bracing girders at one floor through the col-
umns, straining these on bending, to the girders at floor below and
so on to base of columns. Referring now to Fig. 9, showing the
bending moments, and to Fig. 10, showing the shears, the following
notations have been used :

p — one-third of the total shear (horizontal) at fifth floor.
(In this case i X 61,200 = 20,400 pounds.)

140

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

V = the vertical reaction at column No. 4 or column No. 6.

H = the height of fourth story.

W = the distance, center to center, between columns No. 4
and No. 5, or between columns No. 5 ana No. 6.

D = the total dead load on girder.

L = the total live load on girder.

Assuming the wind to blow in the direction of the arrow (refer
to Fig. 9),

3.p.H — 2.V.W = O

V

_ 3-P-H

2.W

If we now investigate the bending moments on girders con-
necting columns No. 4, No. 5 and No. 6, we find :

On the right side of column No. 6 + p.H. (Compression in
top flange.)

On the left side of column No. 5 -f p.H — V. W. (Tension
in top flange.)

On the right side of column No. 5 — p.H -(- V.W. (Com-
pression in top flange.)

On the left side of column No. 4 — p.H. (Tension in top
flange.)

These are the extreme positive and negative moments on gird-
ers.

The bending moments due to the dead and live loads will

(D + L)W

have their maximum value at centers of girders =

8

STEEL CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL OFFICE BUILDING. 141

In Fig". 9 the bending moments due to wind are drawn with
dotted lines, the bending moments due to dead and live loads are
drawn with dot and dash lines, and the resultant moments with
full lines. The ordinates in the shaded polygons will give the
tending moment at any place along the top flange of girder. The
bending moments along the bottom flansre will be somewhat smaller,
and generally of opposite sign.

Direction of Wind

Total Dead and Dive Doad

=d\+l

Shear Diagram

Fig. 10

Assuming the wind to blow in the direction of the arrow (refer
to Fig. 10), it will be seen that the vertical shear

On the right side of column No. 6 = — V -j — —

2

On the left side of column No. z = — V

2

D + L

On the right side of column No. 5

V +

On the left side of column No. 4 = — V

2

Column No. 5 occupies the center of the building, and it has
been assumed that this column causes neither a positive nor a nega-
tive vertical reaction. In proportioning girder, note that the ex-
treme fiber stress has been raised by 50 per cent., 13,000 pounds
being used for dead load and live load, and 20,000 pounds for wind
load stresses ; as the wind load stresses seldom occur, and taken
altogether with the dead and live load stresses, the stress per square
inch runs considerably below 20,000 pounds. The girders are also
subject to direct compression (due to wind loads), but the writer
thinks this compressive stress can be safely disregarded, as the con-

142 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

crete floor can be relied upon to carry this load, or to help in doing
so.

The next tning to consider is the influence of the wind pres-
sure on the columns. Considering system 4, 5, 6, Fig. J, Plate I,
there is, at the roof, a wind load of 3600 pounds ; at floors from the
twelfth to the third, inclusive, 7200 pounds ; at the second floor,
8700 pounds, and at the first floor, 5100 pounds.

The load on column 4 (or 6) caused by the wind will be:

rr, i£., 3600 X 12 „ ,

Twelfth story — = 1350 pounds.

32

Eleventh storv '- 1- 1350 = 5400 pounds.

32

rp ,, l8,000 X 12 ,

Tenth story + 5400 = 12,150 pounds.

Ninth story — — -j- 12,150 = 21,600 pounds,

32

and so on, down to the footings.

In other words, the moments, due to wind loads, are found at
each floor; the resultant moment divided by the distance, center
to center, between outer columns, No. 4 and No. 6, will give the
stress in columns No. 4 and No. 6, which evidently is tensile on
the windward side and compressive on the leeward side. * Column
No. 5, being at the center of the building, will get no allowance for
the wind loads. By an inspection of the shear diagram, Fig. 10,
it will be noticed that the vertical shear, due to wind loads, is con-
stant from column No. 6 to column No. 4. In proportioning col-
umns, note that for stresses due to wind pressure, 16,000 pounds
per square inch has been used, or 33 per cent, more than for dead
and live loads.

The direct bending moments on columns due to wind loads
have not been considered in proportioning these columns. By trials
it was found that for a story height of 12 feet, and a width of build-
ing of 32 feet, these bending moments did not raise the fiber stress
to any great extent. The influence of these direct bending mo-
ments should, however, be investigated for each separate design;
as, for a very narrow building with high stories, it may become
necessary to increase the amount of metal in columns.

The general treatment of the wind-bracing system between
columns 17, 18, 19 and 20 is similar to that above described, but
we now have four columns where before we had but three. (See
Fig. 11.)

Fig. 11 shows columns 17, 18, 19, 20 at twelfth floor. The
bracing girders are riveted in place, and the shear at twelfth floor

JOURNAL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

J. S. BRANNE, CONSTRUCTION OF TALL OFFICE BUILDINGS.

DO DDDDD DO
tEOfflODO]
D DDDDD
D DDDD □

□ DDDOD
D DDDDD
D DDDDD
D DDDDD
D DDDDD
D DDDDD
D DDDD D

□ DDDDD
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D DDDDD

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E

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FIG. A. FRONT ELEVATION

sffc if

FIG. J. WIND-BRACING COLUMNS 4, 5,
OR COLUMNS 7. 8, 9.

33IT3I0O3 DHIfl33H<:

25Q

oL

Q O

>

CO

JOURNAL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

J. S BRANNE, CONSTRUCTION OF TALL OFFICE BUILDINGS PLATE II.

n

^-te

jes: r a^i

- c a|iJ;H-V-l9* o

mTttmRH

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FIG. G. TYPICAL OFFICE FLOOR
(3RD TO 12th INCLUSIVE).

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JOURNAL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

J. S. BRANNE, CONSTRUCTION OF TALL OFFICE BUILDINGS.

!flUOL

STEEL CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL OFFICE BUILDING. 143

will be transferred from the bracing girders through the columns
in eleventh story, straining these on bending, to the bracing girders
at eleventh floor, and so on to the base of columns.

Referring now to Fig. 11 and to Fig. 12, showing the bending
moments, and Fig. 13, showing the shears, the following notation?
have been used :

p — one-fourth of the total horizontal shear at twelfth floor
(in this case 34 X 39.600 = 9900 pounds).

X = the vertical reaction at column No. 17 or column No. 20.

Y = the vertical reaction at column No. 18 or column No. 19.

Fig. 11

-p

Moment Diagram

Fig. 12

H = the height of eleventh story.

W2 = the distance, center to center, between columns No. 18
and No. 19.

W-l = the distance, center to center, between columns No. 17
and No. 18, or No. 19 and No. 20.

D and L, Dx and L1; total dead and live load on girders. (As-
sumed uniform in order to simplify the treatment.) The center
of the building lies halfway between columns No. 18 and No. 19;
and it has been assumed that the strains in the columns, caused by
wind loads, are proportional to the distance of column from center
of building ; or

144 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

X : Y = 24 : 7

X = ^-. Y (a)

7

Assuming the wind to blow in the direction of the arrow
(refer to Fig. 12) :

4.p.H — X(2WX + W2) — Y.W2 = O (b)

From equations a and b X and Y can be easily found.

If we now investigate the bending moments on girders con-
necting columns Nos. 17, 18, 19, 20, we find:

On the right side of column No. 20 -|- p.H. (Compression in
top flange.)

On the left side of column No. 19 -|- p.H — XWr (Tension
in top flange.)

On the right side of column No. 19 -f- 2. p.H — XWr (Com-
pression in top flange.)

On the left side of column No. 18 — 2. p.H -\- XWj. (Tension
in top flange.)

On the right side of column No. 18 — p.H -\- XWr (Com-
pression in top flange.)

On the left side of column No. 17 — p.H. (Tension in top
flange.)

These are the extreme positive and negative moments on gird-
ers.

The bending moments due to the dead and live loads will have

. . , (D + L)WX A
their maximum value at centers of girders = — — and

(D, + Li)W,

— for outer and inner girders respectively. The bend-

o

ing moments due to wind loads and dead and live loads are shown
similarly to what was shown in Fig 9, and the resultant moments
along top flange of girder can be scaled off ; the moments along the
bottom flange are slightly smaller and generally of opposite sign.
Assuming the wind to blow in the direction of the arrow (refer
to Fig. 13), it will be seen that the vertical shear:

On the right side of column No. 20 = — X -J — —

2

On the left side of column No. 19 = — X — —

2

On the right side of column No. 19 = — X — Y -| — -1- - — *
On the left side of column No. 18 = — X — Y — Dl + L*

STEEL CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL OFFICE BUILDING. 145

On the right side of column No. 18

X +

D + L

On the left side of column No. 17 =

X —

2

3 -I- L
2

As to the influence of wind pressure on columns Nos. 17, 18,
19, 20, the porcedure to find stresses is similar to the one explained
for columns Nos. 4, 5, 6; that is, after finding the values of X and

Y for each story (X16 and Y16, X15 and Y15 X0 and Y0)

summarize their numerical values, downward, until the basement is
reached. For instance, column load for sixteenth story is X16 and
Y16 : fifteenth story is X16 + X15 and Y16 -j- Y15 ; fourteenth story
is X16 + X15 + X14 and Y16 + Y15 + Y14, and so on.

In other words, the overturning moments of the wind are re-
sisted by two couples :

X(2W, + W2) and Y.W2

°-H

Shear Diagram

Fig. IS

By an inspection of the vertical shear diagram, Fig. 13, it wni
be noticed that the shear, due to wind loads, is constant from col-
umn No. 20 to column No. 19 ( — X), again constant from column
No. 19 to dolumn No. 18 ( — X — Y) and finally constant from
column No. 18 to column No. 17 (-—X).

The writer believes that the method above illustrated for pro-
portioning girders and columns will be quite useful and safe for all
practical purposes, without laying claim to absolute correctness.
The more perfect the column connections are, the more reason is
there to expect close results. As in any other general rule, there
are, of course, special cases that must be treated by themselves, as
exceptions. The columns should be anchored by strong rods into
or below the foundations, if the graphical lay-out of the wind pres-

146 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

sure and dead weight of the building shows that the resultant at
level of foundation falls outside the middle third of the base. As
to bracing this building in its longitudinal direction, the standard
connections between beams and columns are quite sufficient. For
the lower part of the building (terminating at the thirteenth floor
level) the ratio of length to height is as i : 1.64. For the upper
front part, terminating at roof over sixteenth story, the ratio of
length to height is as 1 to 1.20. Between columns No. 10 and No.
1 1 is a brick wall, running continuously from second floor to roof,
helping to stiffen the building transversely.

5. TYPICAL DETAILS.

The typical details, shown on plans Fig. D, Plate I, and Plate
III, have already been mentioned in describing the various classes
of work to which they belong. In Fig. D is shown the cantilever
girder between columns No. 13 and No. 14; one column (wall col-
umn) rests on top of the girder, while the anchor column (No. 14)
rests directly on the grillage and the girder is framed into it. Plan
No. 13 shows the connection of wind-bracing girders and floor
girders to columns, and shows column splice. This floor girder
(15-inch beam, 60 pounds) rests on a bracket riveted to column.
The beam flange will be riveted to this bracket, and the top flange
of the beam will be riveted to an angle shelf, to steady the beam.
Plan No. 14 shows some eccentric beam connections. It will be
seen from the floor plan that the loads carried into column by the
wall girders are rather small, therefore the connections are light.

Very often an eccentric wall load is balanced, or partly bal-
anced, by the intermediate beam loads. For example :

Load transmitted by wall girders = P.

Load transmitted by intermediate beam = Pa.

Moment of wall girders = Pd.

Moment of intermediate beam = Pidv

Pd may be equal to, or larger or smaller than, P^.

Fig. 14 shows such a case. This should be considered when
wall columns are proportioned, as the eccentric load may be less
than is expected.

Fig. K, Plate III, shows steel construction in bay window
framing in front of building, as shown on the general front eleva-
tion, Fig. A, Plate I. At the floor level, and attached to front
girders by bent plates and a cantilever construction carrying the
loads into the floor construction, are channels properly framed to
follow the outline of the bay window. A concrete floor will be
built in between the channels and the front girders. The framing

STEEL CONSTRUCTION OF A TALL OFFICE BUILDING. 147

is suspended by 3 x 3-inch angles, as indicated; angles being fas-
tened to cantilever construction, as indicated, at fifteenth, twelfth,
ninth, sixth and fourth floors.

GENERAL REMARKS.

It is important to write out a specification for the kind of ma-
terial wanted in the various parts of a steel structure. The special
requirements for steel, as to amount of sulphur and phosphorus
allowable, and as to tests and inspection of raw and finished ma-
terial, are decided by each architect or engineer for himself; still
there are some general points which should not be overlooked. All
beams used in foundations should have three to four coats of paint,
raw linseed oil forming the binder, and oxide of iron or red lead
the pigment. Before applying paint, the surfaces should be abso-
lutely clean. If hammering and wire brushing will not render them

1

1

L.

HE

I

1+-

!__L

-i-

so, the sand blast should be used. The grillage box girders should
be tight, so that no water can get in under any circumstances that
might arise. These also ought to have three to four coats of paint.
The floor beams should have end connections strong enough to
carry the load safely into the girders. In short spans the standard
connection angles may not suffice. Where wall girders or other
beams connect with columns eccentrically, connections should be
so designed as to transfer the load into the entire column, not into
part of it only. Where wall girders have cover plates, the rivets
should be flattened on top of the cover plate, in order to give better
bearing for brick or stone work. Where beams connect to col-
umns with a connection angle above (connecting to top flange),
give an allowance of one-eighth to one-quarter inch to allow for
irregularities in depth of beam. As to paint, the writer believes
that, as long as the body of the paint is good unadulterated linseed
oil, it is immaterial whether the pigment is oxide of iron or fed
lead.

148 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The estimated weight of steel in the building here described is
795 tons, and the estimated cost price for furnishing all steel and
erecting it at St. Louis, riveting all connections and giving all steel
an extra coat of paint after erection, is $47,000 at prevailing prices,
September, 1900. Analyzed, the weight and price appear as fol-
lows:

Number of cubic feet in building, using outside dimensions,
745,000.

Weight of structural steel, per cubic foot of building, 2.13
pounds.

Cost price of structural steel, per cubic foot of building, 6.31
cents.

Cost of structural steel, per pound, 2.96 cents.

The writer wishes to express his thanks to Mr. Wm. Frye
Scott, architect, New York city, formerly a member of the En-
gineers' Club of St. Louis, who assisted in getting up the architec-
tural features, arrangement of rooms, stairways, elevators, etc., for
the building discussed in this paper.

THE ENGINEERING SOCIETY. 149

THE ENGINEERING SOCIETY— ITS RELATIONS TO THE
ENGINEER AND TO THE PROFESSION.

Annual Address by H. J. Malochee, President Louisiana Engineering

Society.

[Read before the Society, January 12, 1901.*]

;By constitutional right your President has the floor on this
occasion, and he begs your indulgence if, at any time, he should
become tiresome or should say anything that does not meet with
your approval or should offend any one by any statement that he
may make. He wishes, however, to assure you that the privilege
is one that he fully appreciates, and one that has given him no
little concern since his elevation to the presidency of your Society,
wishing then, and now, as he has always done, to continue in the
footsteps of his predecessors and to further at all times the inter-
est of your body and that of the profession. Being sensible of
the honor conferred and fully aware of the futility of his own
efforts, but for the support given him by the members of the
Society and by his associates on the Direction, he wishes to
acknowledge with gratitude their assistance on all occasions
when the future of the Society was involved, its interests were
at stake and its development and advancement under consideration.

A retrospect of the Society's progress during the three years
of its existence will, by way of introduction to what I have to say,
serve to place before the members of the Society, and before
those of the profession who have not honored us with their
valued membership, some idea of the good to be derived from
such membership, professionally, personally and otherwise.

Beginning with twenty-six charter members, the Society has
gradually increased to the comparatively large membership of
seventy-five members of all classes. It has increased its furniture
and other assets; it has preserved intact its cash balance in bank;
it has, through the establishment of a well-furnished library, given
to its members free access to books and periodicals worth a
hundred-fold their annual dues. Its members have listened to a
number of important papers specially prepared for its meetings,
the value of which has been fully recognized by every one. A
movement of importance was started toward the protection of
the public against the imposition of the charlatans in the pro-
fession, and it bids fair to be successful in a short time. The
social features have not been neglected, and we count in three

*Manuscript received January 17, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

150 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

years' existence two outings and two smokers of unusual sig-
nificance and success, the first two being especially so through
the delightful and beneficent presence of a large number of ladies.

In view of the great work already done and of the large
amount still remaining to be done by this organization, in view
of its importance and power for good, would it be amiss to
consider the Engineering Society from the theoretical and prac-
tical standpoint, to consider its duty to its members, its duty
to the profession at large, its ability as a teacher, as a social factor
and as a factor in forming public opinion on the value of engineer-
ing service ?

Throughout the past ages man has sought his kind, has
formed associations for his protection and advancement, and, as
Montesquieu says, this state of association has in itself developed
a state of war, the very reason for this latter state being the
recognition of his own superior strength or weakness. Compari-
sons of the strength or weakness of this or that individual, and the
confidence, derived from these comparisons, in one's own strength,
made this state of war possible. This state of war has not, however,
caused the destruction of the race ; it has improved it ; it has made
of it a living, active body, and the more active this state of war the
greater has been the effort to live through it and the greater
the results attained. Our civilization, our commerce, our in-
dustries, our government, our states, our municipalities, our
buildings, our homes, our fight for life, all are combined to make
this state of war and to increase the world's efforts toward the
goal which it has set for itself, — viz, the happiness of all.

And in this work the engineer stands as the exponent of
the highest aims, the leader in some of the most important works,
the creator of new methods and processes for the improvement
of mankind and its condition, the maker of opportunities never
dreamed of, the designer of magnificent monuments and buildings
that serve to elevate us and stir us on to the ultimate aim for
which we have been created.

But all of this work, all of this designing, all of this execu-
tion, all of this leadership, — in fine, all this display of genius, — has
not been arrived at without effort, constant and persistent. It
has been reached only after studious research and varied experi-
ment of the most serious and assiduous kind, until nature, after
opening its great book of laws to the engineer, has, through
these very laws, become, together with its materials, his slave
for the advancement of the entire race and the personal comfort
and benefit of its members.

THE ENGINEERING SOCIETY. 151

The engineer has arrived at this very enviable position
through a number of causes besides the one of self-preservation
mentioned heretofore, but none can be considered of greater im-
portance nor productive of greater results than the technical col-
lege and the technical society. It is true that there come into the
world some men so vigorous of mind and body, so transcendental
in their genius, that they are not in. need of the assistance of their
fellows; but those men are few and far between, and it must be
admitted that the larger proportion owe to education the knowl-
edge with which they are endowed, or the thoughts which emanate
from their brains. This is possibly truer of the engineer than
of most men, for the engineering knowledge of centuries has
been condensed into the knowledge of the present day by con-
stant study of the results attained under the tentative methods
that formerly prevailed and by the examination of the various
applications of the principles and laws of nature as shown by
the works of the great scientists and engineers.

Through the means of the high-class experimental laborato-
ries of the present day, we have peered into the hidden world,
into the methods and doings of nature itself, until we have
practically discovered all of its great secrets with the exception of
the essence of life. But who has preserved all the details of this
experimentation? Who has collected the data and the results?
Who has verified them? The answer comes quickly and nat-
urally,— the technical college and the engineering society. But
they have done more yet, they have conjointly elevated the standard
of the profession, improved its ethics and by proper records pre-
served for all engineers the knowledge, research and investigations
of all the engineers of the world.

The great and important duty and work of the technical
college in training the youth of this generation in the knowledge
necessary for the proper direction of their energies without en-
gaging them in the serious mistakes which must, of necessity,
be the result of direction by untrained men. This duty and work
need no elucidation, no commendation, no praise from any of us;
for the results, the work of its graduates, show for themselves
without any words from me. This training is so well recognized
as a prerequisite to the acquirements necessary to one who wishes
to enter the field of engineering that some of the large machine
shops do not take in any other apprentices than young men who
have graduated from technical schools of recognized standing, and
the requirements for membership in either the American Society
of Civil Engineers or the American Society of Mechanical En-
gineers almost demand such education or its equivalent.

152 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Has the technical society done its part of the work? Em-
phatically, yes. The young engineer leaving college has only been
taught correct principles, and informed upon the methods which
have been found most successful. But his technical education
has fitted him for the battle of life, and particularly for the post-
graduate work which he needs in order to keep abreast of the
times. It has placed him in a position wherein he can, through
correctly directed judgment, discern between right and wrong,
technically speaking as well as professionally, and I ask, what
are the means at hand for this advanced work, for the study of
ever-changing conditions and applications?

Such means are found in the experience acquired by each
individual, in the experiences of others, as published in the tech-
nical press, in the valuable bulletins and catalogues issued by
manufacturing companies, and in the papers presented before the
various technical societies of the world. But, by reason of man's
tendency toward association, by reason of local interest, of per-
sonal acquaintance derived from such association, of the light
acquired by discussion between individuals, by reason of the'
social features attached to such organizations, the Engineering
Society is the most attractive of these means of improvement, and
we find it increasing in its membership, in the value of the papers
presented, in the advantages it offers and in the fraternal feeling
it engenders between the various members of the profession.

Considered from the theoretical standpoint, such a society
as ours is a rendezvous or meeting place for its members, for
an exchange of views, for the discussion of experiences, for the
collection of a library and for the presentation of new ideas and
their discussion, for a more intimate personal acquaintance, for
the consideration of questions of ethics and other matters of
interest to its members, for the recognition of services rendered
to the profession at large, for the instruction of the world in the
ideals which the profession has set for itself, for the exposition
of the benefits to be derived from the raising of these ideals
and for the education of the younger by the older members, — in
fact, the aim of the Society is the general advancement of its
members and of the profession at large. Practically speaking,
what does such a society as ours bring forth? It gives us all of
the above advantages in a greater or lesser degree. The eminent
engineer learns to know the younger member from a different
point of view than in the light of an assistant; the chief learns of
the hidden ability in the more timid employe; the assistant has the
opportunity of placing himself properly, possibly in a prominent

THE ENGINEERING SOCIETY. 153

~\vay, before the head of his department by correct discussion of
matters presented to the Society; the plane of equality upon
which they meet opens the door for a more thorough understand-
ing of their dispositions and characters, and the chaff is uncon-
sciously separated, or at least distinguished, from the wheat. The
sensible increase of a library, and the improvement in its cata-
loguing and therefore in its value, and the emulation derived
from the consideration of the work done by the other members,
form not the lesser advantages to be gamed from such associa-
tion. All these things we have, but we must not stop here. A
larger number of members should take active part in the pro-
ceedings; the membership should be increased so as to include
every member of the profession deserving such membership; the
ethics of the profession should be zealously guarded, and, if
possible, their standard heightened; the certificate of membership
in this Society, although to-day a recognized guarantee of ability
and integrity, should become a passport into the most carefully
guarded and exclusive places in the world, and the voice of
authority should be that of its members.

The Engineering Society owes it to its members to take up
and study all subjects of engineering interest that may come up in
the natural course of events. It should express itself against all
methods that tend to affect injuriously the standard of the profes-
sion, and should, without fear or favor, condemn those who,
through their conduct, tend to lower that standard. The value
of the services rendered by professional engineers should be
recognized to be as great as, if not greater than, that of any of
the other learned professions, and it behooves the Engineering
Society to discredit the men or man who would have us give an
opinion for a mere pittance or design some great work for a mere
living salary. It owes it to its members to investigate carefully
the professional, business and social standing of the men who
knock at its doors for admission, for surely integrity, honesty,
and conscientious devotion to duty and truth are the necessary at-
tributes of an engineer as well as the qualifications necessary
to a gentleman.

In the light of our experience during the latter part of the
nineteenth century, in the light of the increased importance of the
engineer in our daily life and of the position assumed by him
with relation to our industrial life, how can we expect his influence
to be nil during the next century? For my part, I cannot see in
what sphere of action this influence will not be felt. It is now
felt throughout the world. There exists to-day neither time nor
[17]

154 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

distance on this earth. The telephone, the telegraph; the rail-
road, the steamship; the street car, the automobile; the merchant
ship, the battle ship; the magazine rifle, the ioo-ton breach-
loading gun; the silk dress, the cotton goods; the blast furnace,
the cotton mill; the necessaries of life, its luxuries, — all these
things, and more, owe their existence to the engineer and to his
genius of design and application. Can this influence be dimin-
ished? The engine of twenty years ago was of 300 H. P.; the
engine of to-day is of 5000 H. P. The steamship of a few years
ago was a 1200-ton ship; the steamship of to-day is a "Deutsch-
land" or an "Oceanic," with 16,000 tons carrying capacity and
33,000 H. P. of driving machinery. There must and can be no stop
in the world's progress. The engineer, as the leader in this march
toward the goal of universal happiness, must forever and with
vigilance watch the opportunities for advancement and improve-
ment. Sanitary and health conditions must be looked into, so
as to lengthen the life of the human race; the cost of the poor
man's loaf and of his cotton and woolen goods must be decreased,,
the productiveness of his labor must be increased; and to the
engineer we shall turn as the benefactor of mankind, the promoter
of its happiness, the user of the resources of the world, the creator
of its opportunities, the framer of its most important destinies.

Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.

Ass

OCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Organized 1881.

Vol. XXVI. MARCH, 1901. No. 3

, . y, <A *.

This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contribute^ b^eny Society or for
the statements or opinions of members of the Societ^esT*

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS.

By George H. Fexkell, Member Detroit Engineering Society.

[Read before the Society, May 18, 1900.*]

The student in hydraulics at first is often led to believe
that the formulas for the flow of water through channels of
different kinds, through orifices and over weirs, are derived
from certain well-known laws, such as those of gravity and fric-
tion, whose character and nature have been so thoroughly studied
that they admit of little or no variation. His belief in that line is
strengthened when he finds how long many of these formulas
have been in general use and the number of years they have
appeared in precisely the same form in text-books and manuals.

If the subject is pursued farther, however, it will be observed
that all have been founded upon, or at least verified by experi-
ments made at different times, by different persons and under
various conditions. Many have evolved formulas from their own
results, and perhaps a limited number of others that agree with
their own fairly well, disregarding those made under as favorable
conditions, but which do not seem to follow the same laws.

A large number of formulas have been derived to determine
the friction in closed pipes or conduits running full, under pres-
sure, such as cast iron, wrought iron, steel and wood; and so
often, in fact, has this ground been beaten over that many, after
various attempts to find rules that will fit all cases, have given

^Manuscript received March 14, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
18

156 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

up in despair and gone back to some simple equation, believing,
with Hamilton Smith, Jr. ("Hydraulics," page 200), that "It is
very doubtful whether one general expression with constant co-
efficients can be framed, which will, with a fair degree of accuracy,
give the value of v — r, s, and the conditions of the wetted surface
being known."

It seems probable that, if all the experiments that have been
published to the present time had been made with only that
allowable amount of error which even the most careful cannot
avoid, many of the peculiarities entering into the different formu-
las would be missing, and that one set of experiments would
tend to check another. From the time when Couplet, who was
one of the first to recognize the value of accuracy, published the
result of his work at Versailles in 1732 ("Recherches sur le
Mouvement des Eaux"), down to within a few years ago, very
little attempt was made to separate those experiments which had
been made with skill and care from those which were but ap-
proximations or were the result of careless and indifferent work.

In 1885, Hamilton Smith, Jr., member of the American So-
ciety of Civil Engineers, published his "Hydraulics," and in it,
for the first time, so far as the author can ascertain, an endeavor
was made, by plotting v with c (Chezy formula, V — cy'fs) on
squared paper, to pick out those experiments which, by the
smoothness of the curve thus obtained, showed accurate and
careful work. The result of his investigations led him to believe
that the co-efficient c increased in some unknown relation to the
velocity, although above one foot per second the increase in c
was very slight.

During the past few years several sets of experiments have
been made on large pipes of various kinds, and it is the intention
of the author to discuss the published results obtained from these,
as well as most of those reviewed by Mr. Smith.

Tn the discussion on "Experiments on the Flow of Water
in the Six-Foot Steel and Wood Pipes," etc., by Marx, Wing
and Hoskins (Transactions of the American Society of Civil En-
gineers, Vol. XLIY, December, 1900), the author made some
comments on the flow of water in large riveted pipes, and Plates
Nos. 7, 8 and 9 of this paper were there presented.

V2
As J - = 2gh, h = = Hv = velocity head. (The author

has used 64.4 as the value of 2g.) If the loss of head or friction
{///) varies as the square of the velocity, and the velocity head
(Hv) be plotted with the loss of head {Hf~) on squared paper, a

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 157

straight line through the origin will be the result.* If the line
so obtained is not straight, the observed loss of head does not
vary as the square of the observed velocity.

In this discussion, the average straight line throusfh a num-
ber of points is found by first obtaining the center of gravity of
all the points, by dividing first the sum of the ordinates and
then the sum of the abscissas by the number of observations.
The centers of gravity of these points on either side of this
center are then found, and, as these three points lies in a straight
line, they determine the average line as given on the plates and
in the table. It may be that the method of least squares would
have been preferable, as the probable error could have thus been
obtained. The method used, however, involves less labor than
the former and is much more satisfactory than averaging with
a fine thread.

For some time past, many engineers, including those en-
gaged in hydraulic work, have employed some method of plotting
to obtain co-efficients or exponents. Dr. Osborne Reynolds pre-
sented a paper, "An Experimental Investigation of the Circum-
stances which Determine whether the Motion of Water shall be
Direct or Sinuous, and of the Law of Resistance in Parallel
Channels," before the Royal Society of London, March 15, 1883
(Proceedings Royal Society of London, Vol. XXXV, page 84),
in which, by plotting the logarithms of the resistances per unit
length as abscissas and those of the velocities as ordinates, a
straight line results, provided the velocity varies directly as some
power of the friction. The slope of the line found gives the
values of the exponent. Professor Edwin C. Pickering, Director
of Harvard College Observatory, has for many years plotted by
means of logarithms, and in 1893 John R. Freeman, M. Am. Soc.
C. E., Member of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, pre-
pared lithographed sheets drawn to a logarithmic scale on both
abscissas and ordinates, which admit of a wide use, and have been
extensively used by Mr. Freeman and others in experiments on
flow of water. j

*The most satisfactory way of converting velocities into velocity heads
is by means of diagrams made on sheets of cross-section paper about 16
x 20 inches. Plot enough points from a table to give an accurate curve,
and if necessary increase the scale for low velocities. When more con-
venient the square of the velocity may be used instead of the velocity
head.

fThese sheets are 20 x 20 inches, ruled both to a 10-inch and a 20-inch
base, and the scale and print are remarkably good. The author is indebted to
Mr. Freeman for several sheets.

I5» ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Rudolph Hering, M. Am. Soc. C. E., Member of the Bos-
ton Society of Civil Engineers (Transactions American Society
of Civil Engineers, 1879), published several diagrams in a paper,
"The Flow of Water in Small Channels, after Ganguillet & Kutter,"
etc., and similar diagrams were published by Arthur N. Talbot,
Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers (Engineering
News, August 11, 1892), in an article, "Diagrams for Flow in Pipe
Sewers," and by F. S. Bailey, in "Diagram for Discharge of Two-
to Seven-Foot Brick Conduits Flowing Full" (Engineering News,
November 15, 1894), in which the velocity or quantity is plotted at
an arithmetic scale on the ordinate and the grade or slope at a
logarithmic scale on the abscissa, the different sizes being repre-
sented by a diagonal line.*

In Diagrams "A" and "B" in the "Graphical Solution of
Hydraulic Problems" (New York, 1897), Freeman C. Coffin, M.
Am. Soc. C. E., Member of the Boston Society of Civil Engi-
neers, employs logarithmic ruled paper to determine graphically the
increased friction in old pipes over that in new ones.

The advantages in using logarithmic ruled paper are many,
especially for the purpose of obtaining fractional exponents, and
diagrams that could otherwise be represented only by curves of a
complicated nature are much simplified; but for the case at hand,
to study graphically the relation existing between velocity and
friction in closed pipes, and especially the initial error in the obser-
vations or reductions, if such exist, the author believes the method
adopted in this paper to be at least as simple and, owing to uni-
formity of scale, more easily comprehended by inspection than
any other yet published. It was first suggested in 1897 by
Gardner S. Williams, M. Am. Soc. C. E., Member of the Detroit
Engineering Society, and used quite extensively by him and by Mr.
C. W. Hubbell, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E., Member of the Detroit
Engineering Society, and the author in reducing experiments on
frictional loss in curves of different radii in large cast iron pipe.

It is very difficult to obtain a series of experiments on as
complicated a subject as the flow of water through pipes without
some errors entering into the results; but many of these errors,
under ordinary conditions, such as air in gage connections, cali-
bration of instruments and leaks in instruments and connections,
are nearly constant for all velocities; while others, such as per-
sonal error of observers, tend to balance each other. As nearly

*Since presenting this paper, a somewhat similar diagram appeared in
an article "Diagram Giving Discharge of Pipes by Kutter's Formula," by
John H. Gregory. Jun. Am. Soc. C. E. (Eng. Record, Nov. 3, 1900).

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 159

all experimental results include some of these errors, it is hardly
to be expected that, even if H/ varies as the square of the velocity,
the resulting line will pass exactly through the origin. The equa-
tion will, therefore, become H/ = aHv + b, in which ± b is a
constant for each set of experiments and indicates the distance from
the origin at which the line cuts the H/ axis. If we move this line,
parallel with itself, until it passes through the origin, it will then
represent the relation existing between H v and Hf.

There are many things that may affect the final results ob-
tained to such an extent that when Hv and H/ are plotted to-
gether some kind of a curve will result, and it is evident that,
when such is the case, it is impossible to transform them into a
straight line. It seems possible that peculiarities of this kind
may have been sometimes caused either by the effect of curvature
in the line of pipe experimented upon or by errors made in deter-
mining q, v or Hf. Many of these experiments were gaged by
means of weirs or orifices, and, judging from the discussion in
various articles which have recently appeared, it seems possible
that co-efficients were used which may have been in error several
per cent. In the following plates, points which do not plot
straight are connected with a broken line.

In this paper the author has deduced the values of c in the
Chezy formula. If the relation between Hv and Hf can be repre-
sented by a straight line passing through the origin, Hv <x H/x s.
If v = c^rs, c = \/rs~. As zr 00 Hf, and as r is constant for each
size of pipe, c will remain the same for all velocities in the same
pipe. This constancy of c holds good in any formula of the form
i) = crK sy provided y = 2.

On the following plates, all the experiments which the author
has been able to plot in this way are shown at various scales.
Many experiments, however, which have been conducted with
great care are omitted in this discussion because there is not
enough range in the velocities used, to determine accurately
the locus of H/ and Hv. It is also necessary that this range in
velocities should be made on the same section of pipe, covering
as short a period of time as possible, as the various effects of
curvature in different lines, and the ever-changing conditions
of interior surface, may cause considerable variations. Many of
the experiments made by Clemens Herschel, M. Am. Soc. C. E.,
on the riveted pipes of the East Jersey Water Company ("115
Experiments" by Clemens Herschel) are omitted here for this
reason. It may be that some experiments that should have been

160 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

included have been entirely overlooked by the author. It is believed,
however, that no serious omissions have been made.

Table I, accompanying the following plates, is self-explana-
tory. The equation of the average straight line, as shown on the
plates, is :

Hf = aHv ± b,

and, when moved parallel with itself until it passes through the
origin, it becomes:

H f— aHv.

Multiplying the velocity head, of any velocity, by a, the product
is the loss of head per iooo feet of pipe. Column 14 contains a,
and Column 15 contains b in the foregoing equations. Column 16
contains c, as figured from Hf. As explained before, c is constant
for all velocities. It is not the intention of this paper to advance
the formula just mentioned as one to be used in every-day practice
for estimating friction, discharge, etc., as the range in the values
of a entirely unfits it for such a purpose. Neither is it the author's
intention to cast discredit on any set of experiments. As the
name of this paper indicates, it has been the author's aim to
throw more light on this important subject in hydraulics by a
systematic study of previous experiments. It has been claimed
that the ideal formula is v = crxsy, in which x and y have such
values that c will be independent of the size of pipe and of differ-
ent slopes of the same pipe. This can be possible only if y remains
constant for all sizes of pipes.

The question has often been discussed, whether the friction
varies as the square of the velocity, and many attempts have been
made to prove or disprove this proposition. The author will not
attempt to analyze any of these discussionss, but will mention a
few of the most recent papers which have attempted to solve this
problem.

1. In a very interesting paper by William E. Foss, member
of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, "New Formulas for
Calculating the Flow of Water in Pipes and Channels"
(Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies, June,
1894), from the line obtained by plotting the logarithm of v with
the logarithm of s (see Plates 1 and 2 of that paper) on squared
paper, it is. found that v V * s.

2. Desmond FitzGerald, M. Am. Soc. C. E., Member of
the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, deduced from the results of
his experiments on the 48-inch cast iron Rosemary pipes ("Flow of

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 161

Water in Forty-eight-inch Pipes," Transactions American Society
of Civil Engineers, Vol. XXXV, 1896) that

2/ oc s ' °5 when tuberculated, and

Voc s r5T after being cleaned.

Plate 6 shows these experiments, together with those made
on the same pipe by F. P. Stearns, M. Am. Soc. C. E., when new in
1885. These two series were conducted with great care and are
among the best that have ever been published. It will be observed,
from Mr. FitzGerald's results, that v2 x Hf very nearly, and even
if plotted to a much larger scale than shown in Plate 6, it will be
seen that the point falls in a straight line with remarkable precision.

3. In "The Flow of Water in Pipes," by C. H. Tutton,
member of the Engineering Society of Western New York
(Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies, Octo-
ber, 1899), by the use of logarithms, plotting on squared paper,
he finds that if v = cr66s5L, c will remain constant; that is, that
v x s*\

4. Mr. M. E. Sullivan ("New Hydraulics," Denver, 1900)
assumes, as one of the laws of friction as applied to a liquid in
contact with a solid: "The friction on any given unit of surface
will increase as the square of the velocity." An attempt is made
to prove by theory, and to substantiate by a limited number of
pipe experiments, that, if v = f\/r3V^ c will remain constant.

All of these papers and discussions make the assumption
that, in all experiments, the curve representing the relation be-
tween friction and velocity, if plotted from the actual observation,
will pass through the origin. The author believes this assump-
tion to be generally somewhat in error. As has been explained
before, if a series of observations, as plotted on the following
plates, fall in a straight line passing through the origin, v2 oc H/\
If the following plates are carefully examined, it will be found
that most of the best experiments on large pipes plot straight,
although none pass exactly through the origin. There are excep-
tions, however, in the smaller sizes.

Plate 19 shows experiments on two kinds of mill hose, by
John R. Freeman, M. Am. Soc. C. E. (Transactions of the Ameri-
can Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. XXI). Their accuracy is
beyond question, but the line of their points is slightly curved.

Although most of the experiments on large pipe plot straight,
it will be observed that many, made on smaller pipes, are more or
less curved (many of these were made by Mr. Darcy; see Plates
3, 5, 11, 13, 14 and 18), and some of those which the author has

i62 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

reduced to straight lines show a slight arc. This indicates that
Hf does not vary as v2. In several sets, a line passing through
the observations forms a sine curve, which appears much plainer
if plotted to a larger scale. (See Plate 5, No. 11; Plate 7, Nos.
19, 20 and 21; Plate 8, No. 23; Plate 11, No. 30; Plate 12, No. 29;
Plate 13, Nos. 35 and 37; Plate 16, No. 40, and Plate 17, Nos. 44
and 45.) These have all been averaged straight, as the variation
is so slight. It must be admitted, however, that whether straight,
as the larger pipes show, or slightly curved, as a few of unques-
tionable accuracy plot, they should pass through the origin; for,
if there is no velocity, there should be no friction. In other
words, if v and Hf are plotted on cross-section paper, a curve is
the result. If it does not pass through the origin it should be
moved in some way until it does ; or, if Hv is plotted with Hf,
as shown on the accompanying plates, the line, whether straight'
or curved, passing through these points must pass through the
origin if we eliminate what error we can. If a straight line will
represent an average of the points, the constant in its equation
should be eliminated, thus making c (in Chezy formula or any
other formula of the form v = crx sy, in which y = 2) constant for
all velocities; or, if slightly curved, this curve should be moved
until it passes through the origin, whence c will vary slightly with
different velocities, although much less than has generally been
computed. When co-efficients in any formula for the friction in
pipes are obtained for each observation, they will generally be
found to be of much less practical value than when the entire
set is taken as a whole, and when one co-efficient is deduced,
representing, as nearly as may be determined, a general average
after making all possible corrections.

All values of a (Hf = aHv zb b), and c ( v = cy/rs), as pub-
lished in the table, are shown graphically on Plate 21, and, if
examined carefully in connection with the other plates, many
peculiar variations will be noted which can hardly be accounted
for by reasons ordinarily advanced.

The following are a few velocities, with their respective ve-
locity heads, which may aid in understanding the plates':

Velocity in Feet Velocity Head

per Second (v). in Feet (Hv).

0.5 O.OO39

1.0 0.0155

1-5 O.O349

2.0 0.062I

2.5 O.O97O

3.0 O.I398

4.0 O.2485

5.0 O.3882

6.0 0.5500

7.0 0.7609

8.0 0.9938

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TABLE No. I.
; Collected and Tabulated bv Geo. H. Fenk

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A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 163

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Allen Hazen. — The paper of Air. Fenkell takes up
some very interesting problems of the flow of water in pipes. The
method of plotting the velocity heads with the friction heads is most
interesting. The observation that the points so plotted are gener-
ally in a straight line, and the supposition that the distance which
this line passes from the origin represents constant error and can
be eliminated by drawing another line parallel to it and through
the origin, is very interesting and undoubtedly correct in some
cases.

The question of the revision of the formula of the flow of
water in pipes is always interesting. If we take the general for-
mula V = CRX Sy, suggested by Tutton in the Journal of the

ASSOCIATION' OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES, Vol. XIII, page 151, it

will be agreed by every one that the value of C is not constant,
but must vary according to the condition of the surface of the
pipe and other circumstances; but perhaps the variation depends
more upon the accuracy with which the values of x and y are
taken than upon any other conditions. If correct values of x and y
are taken, C will vary but little for a given condition of interior
surface, while with values of x and y far from the truth the varia-
tions in C will be greater and more difficult of analysis.

In the Chezy formula x and y are each taken as 0.50. This
value for y appears approximately correct. For x it is certainly
too low, for the value of C increases with the value of R with
considerable regularity. In Kutter's formula for determining the
value of C in the Chezy formula, C is made to increase with R, and
to such an extent that, for ordinary pipe sizes, and with other
conditions remaining the same, V varies nearly as R°-75. In
Sullivan's formula, which is mentioned by Mr. Fenkell, x is taken
as 0.75. As a matter of fact, I believe that 0.75 is nearly as much
too large as 0.50 is too small. Tutton, as a result of a discussion
of old data by a new and very interesting mathematical method,
found, for iron pipe, x = 0.66.

A method of estimating the value of x, which occurred to
the author before he saw Tutton's paper, and which resembles
somewhat Tutton's method, although the procedure is a little
different, is the following: The value of y is assumed to be 0.50,
and on this assumption the velocity of water in each size of pipe
is computed for S = 0.001. That is to say, for the purpose of dis-
cussion, the various experiments are reduced to a constant value
for S. This slope of 1 in 1000 was selected as convenient and as
representing approximately the average slope in actual work,

164 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

although this is not essential. The velocities for S = o.ooi are
then plotted on logarithmic paper with the sizes of pipe in inches.
If the points should prove to be in an approximately straight line,
the values of x and C could be determined from it and would be
constant. Such a diagram, showing the results given in Fenkell's
paper, is given herewith (Plate 22). I have followed Fenkell in
his computation of constant error, and have taken into account
only the value of the ratio between the velocity head and the
friction, and from this I have computed, in each case, the velocity
for S = 0.001. I have also plotted, upon the same scale, veloci-
ties given by Fanning for this slope, with the various sizes of
pipe, and also the velocities shown by Weston's tables. Weston's
tables do not show the precise velocity corresponding to a slope
of 1 in 1000, so this value has been computed from the nearest
values given. The corresponding velocities, computed by Kut-
ter's formula, with n respectively 0.009, 0.011, 0.013 and 0.015,
are also shown. This diagram shows clearly that Kutter's for-
mula is not adapted to the computation of the flow of water
through pipes, as with it the value of n varies almost as much as
the value of C varies in Chezy's formula; and the use of Kutter's
formula thus increases the complexity of computation without
increasing the accuracy.

The tables of Weston and Fanning agree in a general way
with each other, and with the experimental results herewith
shown; but the minor curves in them are hardly warranted by any
experimental data, and probably the straight line corresponding
to the formula V = 130 R°,625S °-5° , which I have added, and
which differs but little from them, is quite as accurate and more
consistent.

•It is, of course, not to be supposed that any formula could be
derived in which the value of C would be constant; but if a for-
mula should come into use in which the value of x was more
nearly correct than in the Chezy formula, the variations in C
would be correspondingly reduced, and discussion of results
would become more satisfactory and more likely to lead to a
correct understanding of the conditions controlling the flow. The
value of x is certainly more than 0.50 and less than 0.75. Perhaps
the existing data are not such as to warrant a very close approxi-
mation to an average value; but a figure could certainly be
taken which is more nearly correct than the 0.50 used in the Chezy
formula. It may be that originally the convenience in computa-
tion led to the selection of the exponent 0.50; but, with the
facilities afforded by slide rules and logarithmic paper, there is

I

§
1

i

JOURNAL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOGIET

LLEN HAZEN, DISCUSSION, HYDRAULICS. PLATE 22

/0 A? /S 20 24 JO J6 42

/P/a/ne/er of />//>£ W //?cAes.

SO 72 84 36 M

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS.

165

certainly no longer reason for continuing to use a round but
incorrect figure because of the facility of computation.

In connection with the flow in very small pipes, it should be
remembered that, with capillary tubes, x becomes 2 and y be-
comes 1, while the value of C depends in large measure upon the
temperature of the water and its consequent viscosity. The con-
ditions which control the friction in such tubes are undoubtedly
quite different from those in large pipes, but it may be expected
that the values of x and y will increase somewhat with very small
pipes. Darcy's formula takes this into account in some measure,
and new experimental investigations of the friction in small pipes
would be of considerable interest.

In computing the actual flow of water through pipe lines, the
following procedure has been found convenient: A table is pre-
pared of the velocities and discharges in gallons per 24 hours for
pipes of various sizes when the slope equals 0.001. To this is
added a column showing those lengths of pipe in feet, in which
the frictional loss is equal to the velocity head. As both the
friction and the velocity head increase as the square of the ve-
locity, this length is the same for all velocities. The following
is such a table, based upon the heavy line in the diagram:

no ro .62530 .50.

TABLE No. 2.

Flow of Water in Pipes.

When S =0.001.

No. of Feet of Pipe

Diameter in

Velocity,

Gallons Daily.

in which Friction

Inches.

Feet per Second.

Head is Equal to

the Velocity Head.

I

o-37

1,300

2

2

O.56

8,000

5

3

0.73

23,000

8

4

O.87

49,000

12

6

I. 12

142,000

20

8

1-34

303,000

28

10

i-54

544,000

37

12

i-73

877,000

47

16

2.07

1,867,000

67

20

2.38

3,354,000

89

24

2.67

5,412,000

in

30

3.06

9,720,000

147

36

3-43

15,690,000

184

42

3-78

23,510,000

224

48

4. 1 1

33,400,000

264

54

4.42

45,500,000

306

60

4-73

60,000,000

35o

72

5-3o

97,000,000

440

84

5-83

145,000,000

533

96

6-34

206,000,000

630

166 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES. ■

This table is used with the slide rule as follows: The loss
of head due to bends in pipe, entrance velocity, etc., in addition
to the loss by friction in straight pipe, is usually expressed in
multiples and fractions of the velocity head. These fractions are
computed in the usual way and added up for the entire line, and
the sum is multiplied by the length of pipe in the last column. The
length so obtained is the length of straight pipe in which the fric-
tion loss is equal to the additional losses in the particular case
under consideration. In other words all loss of head due to special
resistance is reduced to an equal loss by friction in straight pipe.
This computed length is added to the actual length of pipe, giving
the length of straight pipe of equal resistance to the actual pipe
line with bends, etc. One-thousandth of this length is the loss
of head in feet, when the velocity and discharge are the amounts
shown for that size pipe in the table. The index of a slide rule is
put upon this amount (that is, the head) on the upper scale, and
the moving part is set so that the marker shows the discharge in
gallons, or the velocity in feet per second, on the lower or square
root scale. If another value of C is desired, as, for instance,
ioo instead of 130, for steel pipe or old tuberculated pipe, the
scale can be moved a corresponding amount. The index can then
be moved to show other heads and quantities, which can be taken
off without further setting. This short table is readily put in a
notebook, and with it and a slide rule the flow of water in pipes
can be computed quickly and perhaps as accurately as by other
methods.

Mr. Clarence W. Hubbell. — The writer desires to add his
testimony to the statement of the author that the failure of the
locus of the ratio existing between velocity head and frictional loss,,
to pass through the origin, indicates the presence of an initial error
which should be eliminated before final reductions are made and
conclusions drawn therefrom. During the past two years the
writer has conducted a number of experiments on comparatively
short lengths of cast iron water pipe connected with the distribu-
tion system of the Detroit Water Works, in which very delicate,
specially designed and carefully calibrated difference gages were
used, capable of indicating a loss of head corresponding to 0.002 of
a foot of water on single readings, and much closer results when a
number of readings were averaged. It was in each case possible to
test the gages and gage connections under a condition of absolutely
no flow, which should have given zero readings. The gages, how-
ever, could seldom be brought to read absolute zero, although
a careful inspection would frequently bring to light some unsus-

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 167

pected leak or air bubble, the elimination of which tended to cor-
rect the apparent error.

In a series of observations on twenty-one consecutive sec-
tions of 30-inch pipe, the longest section being 667.86 feet and
the shortest 23.51 feet, the observed frictional loss, with abso-
lutely no flow, was: In four lengths, zero; in seven lengths,
positive; in ten lengths, negative.

If the gages had never indicated zero, or if the apparent error
had always been of the same sign, the failure to close might
have been explained by some theory of internal motion. Under
the circumstances, however, the only reasonable explanation
seems to be that an initial error did exist in the gages or gage
connections. In almost every case it has been found necessary
to eliminate the initial error in order to obtain comparable results.
In short lengths of large pipe, the error, while small in actual
quantity, was frequently equal to the frictional loss corresponding
to an initial velocity of one foot per second.

A constant initial error can be readily eliminated by the
method adopted by the author, if the assumption that Hf <* Hv
holds true; and this assumption seems to be fairly well estab-
lished, within reasonable limits of error, for sizes of pipe above
12 inches in diameter.

However, errors which do not remain constant during a

Hf
series of observations tend to make the locus of ~rr~ a curved

line, and therefore cannot be eliminated by such a simple method.
Indeed, it is usually impossible to eliminate such errors by any
process of reduction whatever.

. , 1 1 r 1 • • H/ . log Hf

As to the two methods of plotting, — i.e.. -rp and 7^ — p, — ,

r fe ' Hv log. V

the writer believes that each system has its strong and its weak
points. The first method (that adopted by the author) exag-
gerates errors at the upper end of the series and minimizes those
near the zero point, which seems to the writer preferable to the
exactly opposite tendency of the second method.

Again, the first method will detect and eliminate any initial
error which remains constant throughout a series of observa-
tions, while the presence of such an error will cause the locus
obtained by the second method to be a curved line convex on the
upper side (log. Hf vertical ordinate) :

(1) When Hf, as observed, contains a negative error or is
less than the true frictional loss.

(2) When the velocity contains a positive error, or is greater
than the true velocity, and concave on the upper side :

1 68

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

(3) When Hf, as observed, contains a positive error or is
greater than the true frictional loss.

(4) When the observed velocity contains a negative error
or is less than the true velocity.

On the other hand, as stated by the author, if no errors be
present in the observations, a curved line, obtained by the first
method, indicates that the frictional loss does not vary as the
square of the velocity, but according to some other power which
may be obtained by the second method. It therefore seems to
the writer that, taking everything into consideration, the best
general results are likely to be obtained by using the first method
in reducing observations on pipes of large diameter, and the
second method for those of small diameter, while in certain
cases a combination of both methods may be used to advantage.

^ \ 0. 002 0. 004 0. 006 0. 008

VELOCITY HEAD IN FT. = Ht

LOG. OF VELOCITY

The method used by the author in determining the average
straight line, represented by a number of observed points, has
one thing in its favor not mentioned by him, — viz, the fact
that numerical results obtained are checked graphically where
the three points are plotted. For, if they fall in an absolutely
straight line, it is sufficient proof that no appreciable errors have
entered into the derivation of ordinates; while, on the other hand,
if they fail to fall in a straight line by ever so little, it is at once
apparent that the reductions are in error and must be recom-
puted.

Plate 23 gives the results of an experiment on 2000 feet of
12-inch cast iron water pipe at very low velocities. The frictional
loss was determined with extreme accuracy, to be used relatively
with other results.

Incidentally, the velocity was computed from the register of
a new 6-inch Thomson meter, in good condition, but which

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS.

169

has never been rated. Errors, if any, are those due to the error
in registry of an ordinary 6-inch Thomson meter.

The observed points are numbered and plotted by both
methods, thus illustrating the exaggeration of each system. The
value of C, in V = cy/rs, is 115.9, obtained by the method em-
ployed by the author, and averaging the four highest points.

The results are also given in Table No. 3 :

TABLE No. 3.

Experiments on Flow of Water through 2000 Feet of 12-inch Tar-
coated Cast Iron Water Pipe Carefully Laid to Level Grade.

No.

Read-
ings

Taken.

Loss of Head
in Feet (Hf)
per 2000 Ft.

Log. Hf.

Velocity,

Feet,

per Second.

Log.
Velocity.

Velocity Head
in Feet (Hv).

c

in
V=C\/rs.

34

O.OOI02

— 3.008600

O.OI050

— 2.021 189

O.OOOOOI7

29.41

18

0.00504

—3.702431

0.01790

—2.252853

O.OOOOO49

22.56

29

0.02268

—2.355643

0.13196

— I. 120574

O.OOO269 —

78.55

28

0.02516

2. 4OO7 1 1

0.15140

— I.180126

O.OO0556+

85-39

28

0.08628

—2.9359IO

0.32586

—i. 5 13084

O.OO1648-L.

99.19

30

O.28209

— I.450388

0.63158

— 1.800442

0.0062000

106.32

40

0.48842

— I.688794

O.85831

—I-933639

0.011449-f

109.85

36

0.72661

I.8613OI

I.06685

0.028124

O.OI76897

in. 90

3«

O. 74832

— I.874088

1. 08571

0.035124

O.OI83208

112.30

Mr. Gardner S. Williams. — Inasmuch as the writer was in a
measure responsible for starting the investigation, the results of
which have been presented in the paper entitled "A Study in Hy-
draulics," he feels that he may very properly apologize to a long-
suffering public for the presentation again, below, of experiments
that have been discussed by almost every writer on the subject of
hydraulics since the close of the last century. No one realizes more
fully than he that if one-half the time and energy that has been spent
in discussing old and questionable observations had been expended
in making reliable ones, the science of hydraulics would be much
further advanced to-day, and no one more heartily appreciates the
feelings of an eminent hydraulic engineer who recently exclaimed :
"In the name of nineteenth century progress let us get through tell-
ing what the Abbe Bossut did in 1776." Nevertheless, if, after
all its threshing over, there still remain, among the mass of chaff
and straw, some kernels of grain that have escaped the sifting
of those who have labored before, the writer feels that he is
warranted in making one more examination of the well-worn
data, and having, as he believes, found therein some evidence
of the existence, not of new laws, but of some that have been
apparently forgotten, or overshadowed by more recently discovered

i70 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

ones, he offers this as his excuse for calling attention again to those
old experiments of Bossut and others.

The assumption that the loss of head of water flowing in pipes
of uniform cross section varies as the square of the velocity, upon
which the investigation presented by the author is based, is the
same as that upon which the Chezy and nearly every other flow
formula rests, and is one that has been tacitly accepted with prac-
tical unanimity in nearly all hydraulic discussions ; and, while such
acceptance does not prove the assumption to be correct, it never-
theless goes far toward showing that, for the cases coming within
ordinary practice, it is not very seriously in error. But in these
days of rigorous requirements in all lines of investigations, it is
in every way desirable that the correctness or incorrectness of all
such assumptions be determined, and, if there are limits to the
application of them, that those limits be ascertained as well.

The plates presented by the author show that in many of the
series studied the line Hf = a Hv does not pass through the
origin, and this the author attributes to errors of observation.
Such an interpretation is probably, in a measure, correct in every
case, but the presence of an intercept — b has another possible
signification, i.e., it may indicate curvature of the locus which is
so slight as to be imperceptible except close to the origin, or in
other words it may indicate that Hf does not vary exactly as Hv
or V2. Referring to Fig. 2, Plate 24, it will be seen that if Hf oc
V1''0 there is an intercept + b = 0.7371 ; if Hf x Vim the intercept
is + b = 0.5519; if Hf oc VlM the intercept + bf = 0.3191, and
if Hf oc V the intercept is zero and the line passes through the
origin. From this it is at once apparent that the presence of a
negative intercept on the Hf axis, or a positive one on the velocity
head axis, may indicate that Hf varies as a higher power of Vthan
the square. In examining the author's plottings, it is noticeable
that in only twelve cases, — less than 20 per cent., — does the line
Hf =aHv± b cut the velocity head axis; i.e., have a negative
b and in all of these except 14a and 59 the intercept is so small
that it may almost be neglected. In 59 it will be noted that the
diameter is very great, and in five of the others giving a negative
b the diameter is greater than 3 feet; on the other hand the + b
intercepts are numerous and many of them of considerable
magnitude, and are confined, with few exceptions, to the smaller
sizes of pipe. The uniformity with which these + b intercepts
appear on the smaller sizes is fair ground for the assumption that
they are due to something more than errors of observation, since it
is hard to account for the net result of such errors being always

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 171

of the same sign. This, taken with the fact pointed out by the
author, that experiments with small diameters do not give straight
lines when Hf is plotted to the velocity head, has led the writer
to investigate this phase of the subject and to enquire whether any
relation exists between the diameter and the exponent of V in
Hf = M Vn and if so, how the relation is affected by roughness
and curvature in the pipes.

Reviewing the history of the matter we find that Prony, about
the beginning of the present century, began to recognize the fact
that the losses of head in flowing water did not vary exactly as
the square of the velocity, and, in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society for 1808, Dr. Thomas Young, in discussing his investiga-
tions upon the flow of water in pipes, says : "I began by examining
the velocities of the water discharged, through pipes of a given
diameter, with different degrees of pressure, and I found that the
friction could not be represented by any single power of the
velocity, although it frequently approached to the proportion of
that power of which the exponent is 1.8, but that it appeared
to consist of two parts, the one varying as the velocity and the other
as its square. The proportion of the parts to each other must,
however, be considered as different, in pipes of different diameters,
the first part being less perceptible in large pipes or in rivers, but
becoming greater than the second in very minute tubes, while the
second also becomes greater for each given portion of the internal
surface of the pipe, as the diameter is diminished." Dr. Young
had at his disposal only the experiments of Couplet, Bossut, Du-
Buat, Gerard, Gerstner and himself, all of which were made with
small pipes, except those of Couplet, which were confined to very
low velocities.

In 1855, before the Institution of Civil Engineers,* discussing
DuBuat's formula, we find Mr. Thomas Hawksley quoted as fol-
lows :

Reporter's Abstract. — "Mr. Hawksley was not aware of ever
having stated, and he certainly never intended it to be understood,
that the formula was applicable to all cases. It was applicable,
however, to all cases which fell within the ordinary practical ap-
plication of hydraulic science ; but it was not applicable for those
extreme cases of minute diameter and sluggish velocity, in which
what ought to be really termed the friction of water, required to
be taken into account. What was usually denominated friction,
by writers on hydraulic science, was not friction at all, but was a
resistance of impact, which varied as the square of velocity, and
*Min. Proc. Inst. C. E., 1855.
[19]

172 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

that was the great resistance experienced in the conduct of water,
and was that given by the formula. In addition to this, there
was another resistance which only varied as the simple velocity, —
the resistance of adhesion or viscidity, as it had been called, but in
reality of friction proper."

But having got so far in the explanation of phenomena of
flow, Mr. Hawksley was led astray into the acceptance of the
then universally adopted theory of DuBuat, of the fluid envelope
and consequent non-effect of character of surface of the inclosing
conduit, which later investigations, particularly those of Darcy,
have shown to be wholly erroneous. The idea of two kinds of
resistance to be dealt with is considered in some of the older
formulae of flow, although the terms providing for the real friction,
were, in ordinary cases, so insignificant that the older hydraulicians
themselves frequently omitted them, and in the popular Chezy
formula they are wholly unrecognizable, the variation of the co-
efficient C being relied upon to provide for them. Mr. Edmund B.
Weston, member American Society of Civil Engineers, after a
very painstaking and exhaustive investigation of existing experi-
ments, published in Volume XXII, Transactions American Society
of Civil Engineers, concluded that the formulae which best fitted
the experiments with large pipes were not satisfactory for small
ones, and for such pipes proposed a formula involving V2 and V/2.

The writer has no inclination to present any new formulae for
the flow of water in pipes ; but, continuing in the line of Mr.
Hawksley's reasoning, with the advantage of our present and more
correct knowledge of the influence of roughness of surface, he
would call attention to the fact that the recent investigations as to
the effect of such roughness have in a measure overlooked the co-
existing effect of diameter. Hamilton Smith, Jr., has stated that C
in the Chezy formula increases with the diameter and with the
velocity. If the deductions of the author are correct, or even
approximately so, they force us to account for the variation of C
by the changes in diameter alone, leaving out, for the present, con-
siderations of roughness. A high value of C in that formula gen-
erally means that the exponent of S or of R is also high, while a
low value of C indicates a low value of the exponent of R or S, R
and S being less than unity ; for, if we accept as correct the experi-
mental data in any case, it follows that V, R and S must be correct,
and therefore the variation of the result by formula from the ex-
perimental one is due to errors in either coefficient or exponent
or both, and any change in one may be compensated by corre-
sponding change in the other for any specific case.

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 173

Insomuch as there is a very widespread misconception regard-
ing the friction of liquids upon solids, for which the text-books
themselves are in a measure responsible, it being often stated that
the frictional resistances in flowing water increase as the square
of the velocity, it may be well to draw attention to the fact, quite
clearly proven by experiment, that the friction of water upon a
solid, or upon itself when moving in straight lines, varies nearly
as the first power, and not as the square, of the velocity. The
opposite conception is at the foundation of a recent formula* for
the flow of water, which, by one of those rare circumstances of
two errors balancing each other, gives, in its resulting values,
some remarkably close approximations to actual conditions. How-
ever convenient or useful this formula may be as an instrument,
the basis upon which its derivation rests is radically wrong.

The flow of water through capillary tubes affords a case where
internal resistances, those due to impact, must be almost wholly
obliterated, and the loss of head observed must therefore be prac-
tically that due to skin friction, and all the accepted experiments in
this field show that the loss of head varies very nearly as the first
power of the velocity. In the flow of water through fine sands
there is perhaps a more perfect example of the effect of skin fric-
tion alone, and here again the loss of head is found to vary as
the first power of the velocity. If further evidence be required,
the investigations of Prof. Osborne Reynolds show that so long as
the motion of the particles of water in a pipe is rectilinear, the
loss of head varies with the first power of the velocity, and if still
more is asked reference may be made to the experiments of Ren-
nie, Coulomb, Beaufoy, Froude and Unwin with various surfaces
dragged or rotated in still water, in all of which the evidence is
that until vibrations are set up in the water itself, the force re-
quired to maintain motion varies as some power of the velocity
much below the second. It is to be remarked that in dragging
or rotating any body in still water, it is practically impossible to
separate the force overcoming true skin friction from that ex-
pended in creating motion in the adjacent water, and for this
reason it is only at extremely low velocities that we would find the
resistance to vary with as low a power as the first, but under these
circumstances that power has been quite closely approximated.

In the case of water flowing at ordinary velocities, where the
impact conditions have attained their normal importance the true
friction — that varying as the first power of the velocity — is prob-
ably restricted mainly to the particles of water in contact with the

*Sullivan's Formula V = CD % S % with C = 50 for cast iron pipe.

174 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

bounding surface, while the impact effects extend through the
whole volume of the liquid, and it therefore appears that the ratio
of importance of the two forms of resistance in determining the
whole loss of head will be proportioned nearly to the ratio of the
area of the cross-section to the wetted perimeter, which is R, and in
circular pipes a function of the diameter alone. It is therefore
seen that for pipes of uniform smoothness, when of large diameter,
the resistance at the circumference is quite insignificant as com-
pared with that in the interior, and that for very small pipes the
condition is reversed, and it may be consequently expected that if
in the equation H/ = mvn — in which Hf is the loss of head due
to both forms of resistance, — i.e., that usually indicated by the fall
of pressure between two points in a closed pipe of uniform section
after regular flow has become established, and V is the mean
velocity of flow, and m a coefficient, — the value of n the exponent
of V L determined, it would range from unity for capillary tubes
as found by Poiseuille and others, to nearly 2 for large pipes, as
demonstrated by the author's plottings.

Considering now the effect of roughness on this exponent, it
may perhaps appear at first sight, that since the true friction
must be greater in a rough than in a smooth pipe, the effect of in-
creased roughness while undoubtedly increasing the coefficient m
would be to decrease the exponent n. On the other hand it may
also appear that a roughened surface will add to the internal re-
sistances, and the increase in that function on that account may
balance or even exceed the increase of the true friction, and the
exponent remain unchanged or be increased. So it is hardly safe
to prophesy the result of increased roughness without a careful
experimental examination of the matter, and the latter is extremely
difficult to manipulate in such a way as to afford the kind of evi-
dence sought in the present case. The especial difficulty lies in
the determination of a unit of roughness for it may be readily
conceived that any number of pipes may have the same mean sec-
tions and yet have their maximum and minimum sections vary to
an almost unlimited extent, so in dealing with the experimental data
at hand no very definite agreements can be expected in the results of
observations upon rough or tuberculated pipes.

For such an investigation of the question H/ = mvn as is pro-
posed above, the most convenient method is by plotting the corre-
sponding logarithmic equation, which is: log Hf = log (mvn)
= log m -\- n log V and if n and in are constants this is seen to be
the equation of a straight line, it being of the general form y = ax
+ b, and therefore the tangent of the inclination of the line to the

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS.

175

176 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

axis of x is the value of n and the length of the ordinate log H/ at
(V = i or log V = o) is log m. This equation may, of course,
be plotted and the results deduced by the use of a table of
logarithms and ordinary cross-section paper, but by the use of
logarithmic cross-section paper, for which the writer is indebted
to Mr. John R. Freeman, Member American Society of Civil
Engineers, the labor can be considerably reduced, without a great
sacrifice of accuracy, and it is by this means that the results about
to be presented have been obtained. In estimating their value it is
to be remembered that this method in no way provides for the
condition which the author has shown to frequently exist, of there
being, as he concludes, a constant error in the observations of one
sign, so that the experimental locus does not pass through the
origin, and consequently the exponent value may be considerably
affected by such causes without the reason being detected.

The writer has examined the results of over sixty series of
experiments upon pipes with diameters ranging from 0.00575 feet
to 0.9744 feet, made by fifteen different investigators under quite
varying conditions.

The results of a part of these investigations are presented
in the accompanying table No. 6, and are also represented graph-
ically on Plate 24, Fig. 1.

In dealing with these experiments it must be remembered that
they have been made under two quite different plans of observation.
The first and oldest is that of allowing the water to flow from a
reservoir into the pipe and to discharge either into the open air or
beneath the surface of water in a second reservoir, the loss of
head measured being that between the surfaces of water in the
two reservoirs, or, when into air, between the center of the section
of discharge and the surface in the feeding reservoir. The head
so obtained is then corrected by the subtraction of the head re-
quired to produce the observed velocity and for an assumed loss
due to the contraction at entry, the remainder being assumed to
represent the loss of head in the pipe alone. This is the method
of Couplet, Bossut, DuBuat, Leslie and Hamilton Smith, Jr., the
latter especially favoring it, and strongly (though it seems not
with entire justification) condemning the second method, that of
Darcy, Jacobson, Rowland and Freeman, which consists of ob-
serving, by means of radial perforations in the pipe wall, the heads
at different points in the pipe experimented upon, and by their
difference obtaining directly the loss of head from one point to an-
other. In the writer's opinion, when the piezometric openings and
the section experimented upon are properly located, the latter

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 177

method is to be preferred. As to the method of measuring the dis-
charge, whether by weight or volume, it has been passed upon
and accepted by Hamilton Smith, Jr., in nearly all the cases cited,
and in most of the remaining ones the intrinsic evidence of the
results of the experiments when plotted goes far to establish the
accuracy of the observed quantities.

It is conceived that less confidence is to be placed in experi-
ments upon short lengths of pipes when made by the former of
the two methods described, because it seems doubtful whether the
effect of entry has ever been accurately determined or properly
explained, and any error in allowing for this will have a greater in-
fluence upon the results in short than in longer pipes. For this
reason greater weight is given to the work of Darcy than to that
of the other observers, as from his work it is possible to take the
loss of head in a section of pipe of a good length that is preceded
by a longer section in which the effect of entry has had a fair
chance to work itself out, and it may therefore be expected that
the loss of head obtained will be the true less under consideration,
unaffected by any but normal conditions.

Darcy's pipes were attached to the end of a closed cylinder
3.28 feet in diameter and 9.76 feet long by a square joint. Mano-
meter No. 5 was attached to this cylinder. Within 1.5 feet of
this cylinder was manometer No. 4, and in all cases except that
of the glass pipe and the lead pipes manometer No. 3 was placed
13 to 18 feet further down stream, manometer No. 2, 164 feet
beyond that and manometer No. 1 another 164 feet distant, which
was usually from 20 to 25 feet from the outlet. In the glass
pipes manometer No. 4 was omitted and Nos. 3, 2 and 1 were
separated by the distances 70.75 feet and 76.39 feet, the total
length being 147 feet. For the lead pipes manometer No. 4 was
2.3 feet from the inlet, No. 3 was from 4.59 feet to 4.92 feet from
No. 4 and Nos. 3, 2 and 1 were 82 feet apart, No. 1 being then
about 1.1 feet from the outlet. All the manometers were attached
to a single piezometric opening in the side of the pipe.

In reducing these experiments, the velocities as given by Ham-
ilton Smith, Jr., have been accepted, but the slopes have been de-
termined by the readings of manometers Nos. 1 and 2, not 1 and 3
as was done by other commentators and by Darcy himself. Using
these slopes, instead of those for the longer section, the erratic re-
sults criticized by former investigators are very largely eliminated,
and it was upon those incongruous results, which it appears were
due to the proximity of the upstream piezometer No. 3, to the

178 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

inlet, that Hamilton Smith, Jr., based his severe arraignment of
the piezometric method of observation.

In this connection it may be remarked that since piezometric
openings in the pipe wall do not give the mean pressure head in
the cross section, but only that in the layer of water next the
opening, it follows that if for any reason the velocity of the
particles in this layer at one point of observation is greater or
less than at another the difference of the pressure heads observed
will be increased or decreased as the case may be, by the head rep-
resented by the change of velocity between the two points. It
is not, therefore, to be expected that a piezometric observation
taken near a contraction or a curve or a gate in a line of pipe
will give data comparable with that shown by similar openings
elsewhere, so that the desideratum for this sort of observation
is a long length of smooth, straight pipe preceding the section
to be experimented upon. How long this preceding length must
be is yet to be determined, but that it should be many times
longer than has been heretofore supposed is proven by the ex-
periments of Darcy, Jacobson and Reynolds, as well as by more
recent ones which might be cited.

For the experiments of Hamilton Smith, Jr., the data as
presented in his Hydraulics has been accepted, and from the same
source have been taken the experiments of Bossut and DuBuat.

The experiments of James Leslie with 2^ -inch lead pipe,
100 feet long, the only ones in his series which seem sufficiently
reliable to be included here, have been computed from his data
as presented in the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil En-
gineers of Great Britain for 1855, the observed heads being cor-
rected for velocity, but not for entry. This pipe was coiled in
a spiral 90 feet in diameter, the loss of head was measured by
the difference of level of water in tanks at the inlet and outlet ends,
and the discharge was measured in a tank.

The experiments of Thomas F. Rowland, given in Transac-
tions American Society Civil Engineers, Volume XIX, have been
similarly reduced. In these experiments the diameters were not
measured, but the pipe is described as >4-inch, ^-inch and i-inch
wrought iron. For these reductions the present standard diam-
eters of these sizes of pipe have been taken and are given in
the table. The discharge was determined by weight and the loss
of head by Bourdon Gages. The experiments have been rejected
by Hamilton Smith, Jr., with justification, but they are included
here as the only ones on record with very small wrought iron

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 179

pipe, and for the smallest diameter the observations seem to be
fairly consistent.

The experiments of Prof. Osborne Reynolds have been taken
from the Royal Philosophical Transactions for 1883. These pipes
were of lead Y\ and ^2-inch diameter and 16 feet long. They
were attached by trumpet mouthpieces to a tank, and the heads
were read piezometrically at points five feet apart near the down-
stream end, the upstream piezometer being 9.6 feet from the in-
let. In Professor Reynold's own discussion of these results he
says that the loss of head varied as the 1.722 power in both pipes.
From a study of the published data this conclusion appears er-
roneous. The value here obtained of 1.725 for n with the larger
pipe is as close a corroboration as could be expected, but in the
case of the smaller pipe the observations fall in two groups,
separated from each other by a change in m the coefficient of V and
apparently indicating an unsuspected change of condition. Each
set has a perfectly definite and regular inclination when plotted
logarithmically, and in both cases it is considerably below that of
the larger pipe, being about 1.637 f°r the lower velocities and
1. 55 1 for the higher ones. It appears that Professor Reynolds
took both groups together and found n from the inclination of
the line best fitting all observations ; but this, from the appearance
of the data, does not seem justifiable, and his conclusion is, more-
over, antagonistic to the indications of the rest of the experiments
investigated in the present discussion. The experiments them-
selves appear to have been made with great care and to be en-
titled to the highest confidence as representing accurately the
conditions encountered.

The experiments of Dr. Heinrich Jacobson were made at
Koenigsberg, and were published in the "Archiv fur Anatomie,
Hygiene," etc., in i860 and 1861. The pipes were connected
to a cylindrical reservoir by a conical brass mouthpiece. The
losses of head were measured both from the surface of the water
in the reservoir and from the height of a manometer column
connected to the tube at a point at varying distances from the inlet,
being generally, in the experiments selected, about 0.03 foot away ;
the pipes discharged freely into the air, so that the total head
measured at this point was presumably the loss of head in the
remaining section of pipe. The diameters were determined by
weighing the water in the pipes, which had been previously selected
from a large number for uniformity of bore. Distilled or filtered
water was used, and the discharge was determined by weight.
These experiments were very carefully made and show remark-

i8o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

ably harmonious results, though it appears that the piezometer was
in some cases too close to the inlet. With these small diameters
the temperature has an important bearing, but those experiments
only have been selected for the present investigation, in which
it was either constant or of small range.

The experiments of John R. Freeman, member American
Society Civil Engineers, upon hose have been taken from Volume
XXI, Transactions American Society Civil Engineers, without
alteration. It, however, seems that the length of 25 feet usually
existing between the hydrant and the first piezometer was not
sufficient for the elimination of entry effects, and that this accounts
for some of the peculiarities of the series.

The experiments credited to Iben and Ehmann are given upon
the authority of Hering and Trautwine's Appendix to "The Flow
of Water in Open Channels." They lack completeness of data,
as obtained from this source, and are presented only as being
in a measure corroborative of the conclusions drawn from the more
reliable investigations.

The experiments upon the 3-inch riveted pipe and the 2-inch
brass pipe were made in the Hydraulic Laboratory of Cornell
University during the latter part of 1899 and the early part of
1900. The former investigation was made by Messrs. L. C. Gilt-
ner and D. A. Ketchum, Jr., as a graduating thesis in the College
of Civil Engineering, and the latter was made by the writer.
The arrangement of the apparatus is shown in Plate 25. The
water was taken from a tank in the top of the building, where the
head was maintained constant by a float valve controlling the sup-
ply from the university reservoir, and admitted to the experimental
system through the pipe D, which was of standard 2-inch wrought
iron. By a similar pipe E it was conducted into the regulator
chamber F F, in which it passed through a screen consisting of a
brass plate drilled with ]/% and -^-inch holes. The outlet of this
chamber was a cycloidal mouthpiece G, whose curve was gen-
erated by a rolling circle of diameter equal to one-fourth that of the
following pipe H, and rolling parallel to the pipe axis. The pipe H
was of seamless drawn brass tubing 0.416 foot in internal diameter,
and at its outlet was a similarly constructed cycloidal mouthpiece I,
connecting to the seamless drawn brass pipe J, K, L, M, N, O, of
which L was the experimental section used in the experiments of
the writer here presented, although observations were also taken
upon H, I, J and K.

The pipe O was standard 2-inch wrought iron and P was
standard 3-inch wrought iron, as was also the outlet section U,

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS.

s
a

u
f->

Coef.

in
V =

C l/rs.
C

M O N m fOO«i>«ui<J-*0 O ■*tj-0 O

LT,

t^-oo oocooocooooowooxoowajoocoooco

SO

Loss of

Head

Per iooo'

in Feet.

loOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
O O WO ^ 0) 00 O "3" O ""> w>nO UI unOO O
00 r^OOO M m <-< u~> n >~D OnoO ^- n cn O 00

O
N

5

O >-> N IN ro oo ■■* ■ri- u-> un itnnO f-00 On O O

H

o

Velocity

in Feet

Per Second.

V

roCT>uit>^-fDinO\t^p'\0 ino tJ-oo 00 «
CO ^ 1? ro m \0 00 O NOO OJ t^OO OnOO u-}00
NO *fOO On O "i « NOO ro^O ■4- rO r^\0 >-n
wnoo On >-i w N cn tJ- u-n u-inO r^oo On O *-> P)

G

o
U

"o

r»

6

N ^ i-i lt> N w ^-mx Tj-roooo u-iw OnnO N
Tj-rorONMNi-ii-i OnOO WOO t>NN

<s-£>^°

h wo r^c^rt-r^o r<"> tJ- c<-n. n On ■«*• m^O >-< •<*•

°TJO n
J ft, .5

O « N foror^<t ■+ vovO no r-^00 00 0 O « . N

fnOM^N^-fOiflOMNN^O ■<*■ r-~NO u->nO no f)
fO f^ O fO « vO 00 O MOO <S tnOO ^f -3-O0 On t^
NO i-fOO On O ui" 0)00 cr>-^-rr>-<t0^rr>*$-VI
u->00 On « i-1 M ro ■* un u-jnO r-^00 O\0 h N to

•J

tf

^ II l£

>0 wvoN N On O nO 00 0 N <t ro O M OM»)m
LO OnOo' cf, (J cjv m' m - fN N m' n' fN ri fi to fO
t-» t~» l~» t-^00 t^OO 0000000000000000000000

« ft....

O f*S r*» **• w On OnnO *HUiOrOOOMOfO
nunmvO rONO r<) i-h CO nO ^ 0 00 roNvO rO ■-

O h N N corotui WO r~-00 CO ffiO 0 H N

»H HH NH 1-1

Velocity

in Feet

Per Second.

V

« i/->nO CO roO OnnO NroN •* On O « OOCC On
M ih c<-n.nO ro ON cn.nO M ro t^ N OnoO OnunOCO
■-iCOMMNOMUNt^ t^OO 00 tr> ■*}- On 0 UNtO"
U1NONO i-i N fO * in NO t^OO On On m i-c N rO

2°W

N On ^-00 OnO ON f^.00 ian ro Tt-NO CO NUNO
« i-c N (s Tj-^-ONroCNl roONONO O000000CC

w

.^

«i « o 1/ ,v

t^ LOOO M i-c tJ-nO ro t)- itnxO On 0 00 00 00 00 Tf

unOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
COM t~^ O r~» cn ThOO NO t)- t~- ^- ON NO CO ^O N
NO TTON^ONrOfOONNO M On r<NN.M N NO t)-Cn>
O i-i i-i m' cn|' ro co ro 4 "N ui n. r-^co' On On O O

i-h unnO OO fOO On On NO NfOUNMNO 1^ t^.00 ON
Cn) i-i rONO fOCTiro (OnO M r^ m con. O 0) tON
m» n nnO n ■tioN t--oo r^ cr>co N no un m
UNNONO « M 01 fOTf u->nO CO OnOnh m n ro

i82 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

the last reducing to i-inch pipe with a controlling valve V. The
riveted pipe was comprised in the four sections Q, R, S and T.
It was made of galvanized iron 0.0503 inch thick, which was rolled
into conical joints 7 inches long and riveted with 1 longitudinal
lap-seam having 7 rivets with a pitch of 1 inch. These joints
were riveted together with a single circumferential row of 9 rivets
with a pitch of 1.05 inches. These rows were 6 inches apart
longitudinally. The rivets, both longitudinal and circumferential,
had button heads ys mcn m diameter at the base and -gZ inch high.
The joints were then made tight by soldering on the outside of
the pipe. The flange unions were so put on as to allow the lengths
to telescope in the same manner as the minor sections, but the cir-
cumferential rivet rows were replaced at these joints by eight rivets
with heads ]/?. inch in diameter at the base and -^ inch high,
fastening one flange to the pipe ; the second flange, on the next sec-
tion, was fastened by a similar row 3 inches away, and 3 inches from
the next regular circumferential rows of 9 small rivets. The joints
in the brass pipe were made with flanges. The ends of the pipes,
being turned true in a lathe and the burr scraped from the in-
side, were butted tightly and held by the flange bolts, a guide hav-
ing been also turned in the flange to hold the two ends truly in
line.

The entire experimental pipe system was suspended from
hangers in the ceiling and the center line was very nearly level for
its entire extent.

The diameters were determined by calipering the ends of the
individual lengths. With the brass pipe, the lengths ranging from
11 to 17 feet, two diameters at right angles were calipered at
each end. The riveted pipe was calipered on each side of the
longitudinal lap and at right angles to the diameter through the
lap, the arithmetical mean of these caliperings being accepted
as the value of D. The calipers used were made by Darling,
Brown & Sharp, and were read to 0.0001 inch. The lengths were
measured with a steel tape. The discharge was determined by
weight upon a scale of 4000 pounds capacity, whose error was de-
termined by comparison with a standard to be ttVtj- , and the correc-
tion neglected. The losses of head were measured piezometrically
by differential gages of a special type, designed by the writer, with
which differences of head amounting to 0.0006 foot of water could
be readily detected. Readings were taken once each minute. The
piezometric openings were radial and 900 apart, and in the case
of the brass pipe were TV inch in diameter and communicated
directly to a circumferential chamber, while with the riveted pipe

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS.

183

they were y% inch and communicated by short j4-inch diameter
tubes with an equalizing chamber of i-inch pipe. The gages were
connected by Y% and ^-inch diameter rubber hose to the cir-
cumferential or the equalizing chambers.

The duration of a single experiment was not less than five
minutes, the flow having been previously started and the water
allowed to run to waste for three or four minutes through one

TABLE No. s.

Experiments on 2-inch Brass Pipe. By G. S. Williams.

Length, 46.376 feet. Mean diameter, 0.1738 feet.

Experiment.

Velocity in feet
per second.

Loss of head per 1000'
in feet.

a

O.53984

O.96

Temperature

h

V

I.II30

O.754IO

3-49
I.79

of Water, 390 to 460
Fahr.

d

O.69561

1.58

e

0-59857

115

f

O.56929

I.09

«:

0.39456

0.54

h

O.25446

O.27

i

0.53857

O.98

J

2.0914

IO.34

k

I. 8371

8.27

1

1. 6144

6.65

m

I.2735

4.42

n

I.0570

3- °9

0

I-3655

5.00

P

0-47837

0.76

q

I.I2I6

4.06

r

O.82243

2.04

s

2.1432

10.66

t

2-2535

11-34

u

I. 9801

9-25

V

I-639I

6.71

w

0.92584

2.48

side of the discharge spout W, which was divided by a vertical
diaphragm. At the proper time this spout, which was suspended
so as to swing freely, was swung over until the jet discharging
at V was delivered into the other half of W and to the scale. The
time required for thus diverting the flow was less than one second.
The time was taken with an ordinary watch, and may be considered
accurate within three seconds. In the riveted pipe experiments
the water was brought to rest at the close of each experiment,
and the static reading of the gages observed. In the brass pipe

184 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

investigation, static readings were taken once in five or six experi-
ments. Dynamic readings were then corrected by the mean of
the static readings at the beginning and end of the experiment.
The riveted pipe was first experimented upon with a flow from
A to C, being from the large to the small end of the sections, and
then was reversed so that the flow took place from C to A and
against the butts of the joints.

The experiments of Messrs. Giltner and Ketchum embraced
observations upon two sections of the pipe, A B and B C, whose
lengths were 24.24 feet and 24.90 feet, respectively, in the first
series, and C B and B A in the second series. The observations
on both sections were made simultaneously up to velocities of
1.75 feet per second, and separately for higher ranges. The
plotting of these experiments upon logarithmic cross-section paper
gives the following values for the loss of head per 1000 feet in feet
of water, Hf.

For upstream section A to B, Hf = 34.36 vi.872.

For downstream section B to C, Hf = 38.01 v 1-884.

For upstream section C to B, Hf = 39.10 vi.882.

For downstream section B to A, Hf = 35.61 v 1.892.

It is notable that the section A B gives a lower loss of
head per thousand, both direct and reversed, than the section B C.
This section was slightly curved in the portion Q or that near
the A end, the deflection from a straight line in continuation of
the axis of the rest of the pipe being about two incnes. The
pipe being made up by hand was none of it so straight as could
be desired, but the curvature near A was the greatest anywhere.
Owing to the short lengths used, general deductions from the
observations may be misleading, although the writer doubts if there
are many series of observations on record that have been more
carefully conducted. The results do, however, quite clearly and
consistently show what they were primarly undertaken to investi-
gate,— viz, the effect upon the loss of head of reversing the flow
in such a pipe, and prove that the resistance is increased when the
flow takes place against the butt ends of the joints. They seem
also to indicate that the effect of the expansion in the pipe area
near the inlet end (from 0 to P, O being a piece of 2-inch and P
a piece of 3-inch wrought iron pipe, the diameters being ap-
proximately 2.067 and 3-°67 inches, respectively) is to decrease
the apparent loss of head in the section immediately following.
Other experiments have shown this to be the case with a con-
traction, and it is perhaps not surprising that the same effect
should appear with an expansion.

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 185

The entire series of the experiments of Messrs. Giltner and
Ketchum is plotted with loss of head as ordinate and velocity
head as abscissa, upon Plate 26, and the reduced results of sev-
enty-two observations from the series are given in table No. 4, as
computed by the experimenters, and similar data for the twenty-
three experiments by the writer are given in table No. 5.

Table No. 3 gives the elements of the several series of the
experiments used in the plottings shown on Plate 25, Fig. I.
Data with numbers having subscripts are not included in the
plate on account of the special conditions of those experiments,
but are included in the table for purposes of comparison.

Considering- now Fig. I, Plate 24, the values of n in the
equation H/ = mvn are plotted as ordinates and the values of
the diameter D as abscissas.

The first thing noticed is that the values of 11 for the small
diameters decrease quite rapidly when D is less than 0.1 foot,
and that the values of n are lower for the smooth pipes than for
the rough ones.

In the series with glass pipes, Nos. 1 to 10, inclusive, there
is first a set of six points from Jacobson covering three very small
diameters, but which show n to increase with some power of D.
Then there are three points, Nos. 7, 8 and 9 from Smith, giving
as many diameters and one from Darcy, No. 10. No. 7, of Smith,
appears to be high, and from the table it is seen that this was
a very short pipe as compared with the others of the larger
diameters, being only about 1 1 feet long, while the next in length,
No. 8, was 35 feet.

On brass pipe there are only two points, Nos. 11 and 12,
and these being by different observers are perhaps surprisingly
coincident in showing that the value of n for brass is less than
for glass.

On lead pipe are three points from Reynolds, Nos. 75, 14
and 75, giving two diameters, three by Darcy, Nos. 16, 17 and
18, giving three diameters and No. 19, by Leslie, which it will be
seen falls below the value of n to be expected from the others.
It is recalled, however, that this pipe was coiled in a long spiral,
and it may be at this point suggested that curvature possibly has
the effect of lowering the value of n. In the table, experiment
No. 19, a, by Iben, gives a value for n of 1.728 for D = 0.082.
This experiment was rejected by Hamilton Smith, Jr., and the
data available is incomplete. It is, however, not far away from the
Darcy value for D = 0.0886 of 1.765.

186 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

On coated wrought iron pipe the points, Nos. 20, 21, 22 and
23 are from Darcy with sheet iron pipes coated with bitumen, and
the point No. 24 is by Smith with a wrought iron pipe similarly
coated, Avhich comes very close to the Darcy value No. 20 for
practically the same diameter.

Under smooth wrought iron are included only the experi-
ments with modern pipes, as there is fairly good reason to sup-
pose that the art of producing smooth interiors in Darcy's day
was not so well perfected as in the time of the later experiments,
and it is seen that the two experiments of Smith, 51 and 32, fall
very close to the lead pipe values, while the Rowland small
pipe values, 25 and 26, fall somewhat above. As already said,
the reliability of Nos. 27 to 30 is considered questionable. Re-
ferring to the table the value of n for Hamilton Smith's short
wrought iron pipe, 16 feet long is 1.842, while the value, No. 32,
for a longer length, 60 feet, of the same size, is only 1.772, which
corroborates the inference in the case of the glass pipes that short
lengths, when treated by the Smith method of observation, give
high values of n.

This conclusion is contradicted by the experiments of DuBuat
on tin pipes, where, as shown in 33 and 33 a of the table, the ex-
ponent for a length of 65 feet is 1.730 and for a length of 10 to
12 feet 1.686. Hamilton Smith has expressed the opinion that
as an experimenter DuBuat was less expert than Bossut, and
the added fact that in these experiments the discharge was part
of the time into air and part of the time under water, warrants
the questioning of this evidence as against that of Smith, which
latter is further corroborated by the Rowland value for the 30-
foot length of %-mch pipe No. 30 a. The points from Bossut
for tin pipes, Nos. 34 and 35, show very low values of n de-
creasing with the diameter, and not far from the brass pipe value
obtained by the writer.

The next set of points is from Darcy, with his wrought iron
pipe, Nos. 3d, 37 and 3$, which, as explained above, is con-
sidered to have been more rough than the pipes of Smith and
Rowland. This conclusion is strongly supported by the coinci-
dence of the Smith point, No. 3p, on an old wrought iron pipe,
60 feet long, with No. 37 of Darcy on essentially the same diameter.
These values it is seen fall about midway between the smooth
pipe series and those of the rougher cast iron.

For cast iron, new and cleaned, there are six points plotted
from Darcy. These pipes were not coated. No. 46 is beyond
the range of the plate and it is not considered as reliable as the

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 187

others, probably on account of the large diameter and slow veloc-
ities. The author's plotting of these observations, No. 5#, Plate
3, shows the irregularity of the results. Nos. 40, 41 and 42 are
with new pipes, and Nos. 43, 44 and 45 with old pipes that had
been cleaned. The series as a whole shows very clearly an in-
crease in n as the diameter increases.

With the exception of No. 50, the points from the Darcy
observations on tuberculated pipes corroborate the general con-
clusion that roughness increases the value of n.

Strange as it may seem, there is, outside of Darcy's work,
a scarcity of good experimental data on cast iron pipes of the
smaller diameters. From the experiments of Ehmann (see tables
Nos. 46 a and 46 b) values for n of 1.822 and 1.9 12 are obtained
for a diameter of 0.164, the latter of which comes somewhere
near the Darcy curve; but the former does not fit at all. These
experiments failed to pass the severe scrutiny of Hamilton Smith,
Jr., and as they were made upon street mains having bends
and other obstructions they cannot be considered of equal value
with Darcy's work, but they may possibly be considered as add-
ing their mite to the evidence that curvature decreases the value
of n. Being coated, they were also probably smoother than were
Darcy's pipes, and hence should give a lower value of M.-
Hamilton Smith's wood pipe, made by boring with an auger
a log of wood, probably gave a condition of surface not very
different from that of cast iron pipe such as Darcy had, — i.e.,
uncoated cast iron, and the plotting of this point 51 seems to be
quite consistent with the Darcy values for cast iron.

The experiments of Messrs. Giltner and Ketchum, No. 52,
show the value of n to be considerably above the Darcy smooth
pipes, and corroborates the conclusion that roughness increases the
value of n.

The Freeman experiments upon hose do not give as satis-
factory information upon the effect of diameter as had been
hoped. This is probably partly due, as before suggested, to the com-
paratively short length of hose between the hydrant and the up-
stream piezometer, and partly "to the many varying conditions
encountered, as roughness, elasticity, very slight sinuosity, con-
striction at couplings, etc., all of which may be very likely to have
an influence upon n. These experiments do, however, afford most
interesting evidence as to the effect of sinuosity and curvature. In
sample E, with the hose laid straight, n = 1.961, and when allowed
to assume a sinuous position, the curves having a radius of about
20

188 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

six to eight feet, the value of n is reduced to 1.904. Similarly
sample L, when straight, gives 11 = 1.900, and when sinuous 1.860.

Experiments upon the effect of curvature were also made
with hose D, which are designated by the letters V, W, X, 1
and Z in the table.

In V the hose in its middle portion was bent around four 450
curves of 2 feet radius. In W it was coiled around a full circle
2 feet in radius. In X it was bent around four 900 curves of 2
feet radius. In Y it was bent around four 900 curves of 3 feet
radius, and in Z it was similarly bent around four 900 curves of
4 feet radius. The curves were arranged one left, two right and
one left, a length of tangent equal to their radius being laid be-
tween each pair of curves. Fifty feet of hose A was connected
between the upstream piezometer and the hydrant, thus improving
the conditions over those of the original experiments with this
hose. As originally tested, hose D gave a value for n of 1.911.
At the beginning of these curve experiments it was again tested
straight, D' in table, and gave n = 1.891. At the close of the
curve experiments it was again straightened out and gave n —
1.873, D" in table.

When curved, it uniformly gave a lower value of n, the mini-
mum being for X where n = 1.803, and the highest being that for
the full circle where n = 1.858, all of which strongly confirms the
inference drawn in considering the Leslie experiment that curva-
ture tends to decrease the value of n.

As indicated by Mr. Hawksley, and since proven by Pro-
fessor Reynolds, under certain conditions, even in pipes of con-
siderable size, the resistance at low velocities increases as the
first power of the velocity up to a certain critical velocity, the
flow below this velocity being nearly rectilinear. This critical
velocity appears to be somewhat dependent upon the diameter
of the pipe. In the logarithmic plotting of several of the series
of experiments, it has appeared that the low velocities gave low
values of n, which gradually increased as the velocity increased
until a velocity was reached above which the locus became a
straight line showing n constant. In determining the values of
n in this investigation, we have rejected in every case the curved
portion of the locus and have taken for n its constant value.

Professor Reynolds was able to observe only the conditions
indicating the establishment of a critical velocity when the water
entered his pipes from a state of prolonged rest in his tank,
and it is to be noted that in the writer's own experiments upon
the brass pipe, and in those of Messrs. Giltner and Ketchum upon

A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 189

the riveted pipe, in both of which velocities as low as one-fourth
of a foot per second were observed, which are the lowest recorded
for pipes of their sizes, there is no evidence of the exponent of V
changing in value appreciably. Therefore the probability of the
critical velocity, as Professor Reynolds defines it, being a factor
in the engineer's practical computations, may be considered as
questionable.

To summarize the results of this investigation, we find:

a. That the loss of head in pipes increases with a power n
of the velocity, which power increases with the diameter from
about unity in capillary tubes to about 2 for the larger sizes of
water pipes.

b. That n increases with increased roughness.

c. That 11 decreases with increase of curvature from the
straight pipe.

• d. That the material of the pipe seems to have an influence
upon the value of n.

e. That for the cases of pipes coming within the range of
the engineer's practice, 2-inch diameter and above, the value of n
may range from 1.8 for very smooth pipes, to about 2.0 for ordinary
uncoated cast iron.

/. That when the loss of head is measured in the manner of
Bossut, DuBuat and Smith, a short pipe will give a value of n
that is high as compared with longer pipes, which seems to be on
account of the special resistance generated at entry to the pipe.

To show graphically the effect of the application of the equa-
tion H/ = a Hv to cases where the exponent of V is less than
2, there are plotted in Fig. 2, Plate 24, as abscissas, to the velocity
head as the ordinate, the values of /^when: I, Hf = mV] ,0;
II, Hf= mV1*0; HI, Hf = mV1-90, and IV, Hf — mV1 for V
= 0.5', 1.0', 1.5', 2.0', 3.0', 4.0', 5.0', 6.0' and 7.0'. The straight
lines A, C, B for the three curves have been plotted according
to the method presented by the author using all the points and in
the case of Hf — uiV1™ the line A', C, B' has been similarly
computed, using only the values of V from 1.5 feet to 7.0 feet,
inclusive.

These plottings demonstrate that, although the lines may fit
the points with considerable accuracy, they do not rightly pass
through the origin, although the true curve does. They also
show that for a range of velocity from 1.5 feet to 7.0 feet, which
covers that ordinarily met with in pipe experiments, the straight
line gives a very close approximation to the true curve, even in the
extreme case of tne exponent being as low as 1.70.

i9o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The equations of these lines A, C, B, are : I, Hf = 36.504 Hv
-f 0.7371 ; II, Hf = 44-147 Hv + 0.5519, and III, Hf = 53-299 Hv
-f 0.3191, and that of the line A', C, B' is Hf == 35.02 Hv -f 1.327.

With a clear understanding of the limits to the applicability of
the straight line equation, it will be found a great assistance in the
field and elsewhere in determining the approximate accuracy of
work as it proceeds or is brought up for examination. As the
author has pointed out, it is actually unnecessary to compute or use
the velocity head itself, since the square of the velocity follows the
same law, and may be therefore used in 'ts stead, so that the labor
of applying the straight line criterion is considerably less than
might at first be supposed.

From the graphical method of obtaining the values of n in
this investigation it follows that the third decimal place is beyond
the limit of accuracy. The second is certainly as far as the ac-
curacy can be relied upon, and that is chiefly valuable for compari-
son with the other values as given here. Another investigation
treating the same data by the same process might very probably
obtain values of n differing in the second place from those here
presented.

The plottings of the author for large pipes indicate that there
may be some very interesting developments at that end of the
series, for they appear to show that n may have a higher value than
2, a point which is corroborated by some of Coulomb's experi-
ments. The problem then naturally arises : Since the true fric-
tion varies as the first power, and the losses due to impact as
the square of the velocity, and these are the principal causes
now recognized as retarding flow, can a value of n greater than 2
be accounted for, unless it is admitted that the mean of the
velocities of the individual particles of a flowing stream increases
more rapidly than does the mean velocity of the stream as a
whole ?

Mr. John C. Trautwine, 3D. — In a series of tests on water
meters to determine the relations between resistance and velocity,
the writer made a few experiments on meters from which all mov-
ing parts had been taken, and also a few experiments on short
lengths of pipe with connections of various kinds. While these
experiments do not give results for straight pipe alone, yet they all
go to show that, in the formula vn = 2 g h, the exponent n is by no
means invariably = 2; that it is usually less, and that it increases
with the projections and roughnesses. Thus, lengths of 1^2 to 3
feet of small tubes, with couplings and meter unions, gave n -- 1.81
to 1.83 ; but the insertion of defective packings in the meter unions,

TABLE No. 6.— Experiments with
Discussed by Hf = mV

Small and Medium-Sizi
by Logarithmic Paper.

1

;

0.00575
0.00587

1.89s- 3.654

?:Si- lion

.1 ita- -. .17.

2.588- 3.1S9

■1

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oBoJ

l

0

H. Snijth.Jr.

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1^398- 4^7°

34W

1:1

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0.07640

63.902

13

Williams

a3

0.17380

'VjM - 3 '^

"3IS0

46376

>-M7

J*

Reynolds

10

T

;;;;£!; :|

14.600

S.000

if

is

T

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o'jW- 7 5&

173400

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I:™

176s

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'iben6

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r-773

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Sheet iron, .oated

::i.'.:

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365-100

I64...50

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365.300
365.500

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63^00

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65.146

si
65.146

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63.95 lo 191.84

63.95 to 191.84

1.691

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Darcy

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,v,7-So

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164.05.

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38

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0.489 -i5:4OT

0.673-16170

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3654O0

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1.908

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157.000

57.200

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A STUDY IN HYDRAULICS. 191

forming irregular orifices within the pipe, brought the value up to
1.98. Again, of two disc meters, otherwise of exactly the same size
and type and running under similar conditions, one, which had ex-
ceedingly meager, tortuous and rough-edged passages, gave ri =
1.93, while the other, with much freer passages, gave 1.82.

Experiments were made also with a disc-shaped box, into
which the water was led either tangentially or radially, and from
which it discharged axially. When the water entered tangentially,
a whirl was formed, producing a great difference of pressure be-
tween the circumference and the center, owing to centrifugal force,
the pressure at the circumference being of course the greater.
In this case n = 2.13. When the water entered radially, no
whirl occurred, the difference in pressure was much less, and n =
1.83.

In all these experiments, which were carefully made, n showed
a marked tendency to be less for low than for high velocities ; and,
since an average had to be taken, it was found useless to attempt to
give n to more than two places of decimals.

Mr. George H. Fenkell. — The author feels that he can say
but little in conclusion.

The discussion by Mr. Hazen is not only very interesting, but
is of great practical value, especially to those engineers who are
accustomed to use the slide rule in all ordinary computations. As
to the formula V = c1r °-625 s °-50, it is probable that none has as
yet been advanced which gives any more uniform values for the
constant than this.

The following table, No. 7, gives values for the constant in

Mr. Hazen's formula, corresponding to various values for the

same in the Chezy formula. The numbers in italics in the table

are the nearest values of c1 to 130, the co-efficient used by. Mr.

azen in Table No. 2; and they show, in a general way, the

/ergence in values of the constants in the formulae.

The discussion by Mr. Hubbell on some of the uses of loga-
rithmic paper is timely, and, in a general way, coincides with the
dJthor's experience. Many of those who have heretofore made
'se of this valuable instrument in the reductions of various obser-
ations seem to have partly, at least, lost sight of its disad-
/antages, as well as some of its most valuable features, and the
reduction of the experiments on 12-inch pipe given by the same
writer illustrates several of these points.

It is not necessary for Mr. Williams to apologize for pre-
senting, in his discussion, the results derived from again reducing
the observations made by some of the pioneers in experimental

192

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

hydraulics. We can never hope to attain perfection in our work,
and it is only by careful study of the past that we can hope to
improve in the future.

In Fig. 2, Plate 26, Mr. Williams shows that the intercept
± b, as shown on Plates 1 to 20 and in Table 1, "may indicate that
Hf does not vary exactly as Hv or V2." We know that this is
true with the smaller sizes of pipes, and it may be that in some
cases the author has averaged as straight some that are actually
curved.

He has, however, endeavored to avoid this. The experiments
on the 3-inch riveted pipe and on 2-inch brass pipe are valuable

TABLE No. 7.
Comparison of Constants in Chezy and Hazen's Formulae.

Chezy Formula— v = cr °-50 s °-60.

(c and c1 Remain

Hazen's Formula (-

Constant for All Values of s.)

Size

of

Pipe.

c

cl

c

c1

c

cl

c

r1

c
130

c1

c

c1

t

r1

2

90

'33-9

100

148.8

no

163.7

120

178.5

193-4

140

208.3

150

223.2

4

"

122.8

136.4

150. 1

163.7

"

177-4

"

191. 0

204.6

6

(t

116. 7

129.7

142.7

155-6

"

168.6

"

181. 6

194.6

8

"

112.6

125. 1

137.6

150. 1

"

162.6

"

1751

187.7

10

"

109- 5

121. 6

133.8

146.0

"

158.2

"

*1°-Z

182.5

12

"

107. 1

118.9

130.8

142.7

"

154-6

"

166.5

178.4

16

"

103. 1

1 14. 7

126.2

137-7

"

149. 1

"

160.6

172. 1

24

"

98.2

109. 1

120.0

130.0

"

141. 8

"

152.7

163.6

30

"

95-4

106. 1

116. 7

I27-3

"

137-9

a

148.5

159- 1

36

"

93-3

103.7

114.0

124.4

"

134.8

(<

I45-I

155-5

42

"

9i-5

101.7

in. 9

122.0

"

132.2

"

142.4

152.5

48

"

90.0

100.0

110.0

120.0

•"

130.0

"

140.0

150.0

54

"

88.7

98.5

108.4

118.2

"

128. 1

"

138.0

147.8

60

"

87-5

97-3

107.0

116.7

"

126.4

"

136.2

H5-9

72

85.6

,,

95-i

104.6

114.1

"

123.6

"

I33-I

142.6

contributions to hydraulic literature, and Table 6, with values
of u, arranges the data of previous experiments in small pipes in
very convenient form.

The brief discussion by Mr. Trautwine is particularly interest-
ing, inasmuch as it deals with the loss of head usually occurring in
meters, a subject apparently much neglected in the past, especially
in sizes over one inch.

Probably one reason for this apparent neglect in the past has
been the difficulty in measuring accurately the losses of head when
velocities are extremely low with any apparatus yet proposed.

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS. 193

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS OF THE METRO-
POLITAN WATER BOARD.

By Caleb Mills Saville,* Member of the Boston Society of Civil

Engineers.

[Read before the Society, February 20, iooi.f]

In the fall of 1895 the work of laying pipes for the water
supply of the district immediately surrounding Boston was begun
by the Metropolitan Water Board, two members of this Society,
Mr. F. P. Stearns and Mr. Dexter Brackett, having been ap-
pointed, respectively, Chief Engineer and Engineer of the Dis-
tribution Department. In laying the pipes to the several parts of
the district a number of rivers were crossed, and the methods
employed in laying the pipes at some of these crossings, while
perhaps not presenting any novel features, were of some interest,
if for nothing more than their variety.

MYSTIC RIVER CROSSING 36-INCH PIPE.

Of the two 48-inch pipe lines running from Chestnut Hill
Reservoir to Spot Pond, the easterly one crosses under the Mystic
River, just east of the bridge on Middlesex avenue, between Med-
ford and Somerville. At this point the river is a tidal stream
about 1 100 feet wide at high water and about 300 feet wide at
low water. The average range of the tides is about 10 feet, and
at low water there is a depth of about 9 feet in the channel.
Rod soundings were made along the line of the proposed location,
and it was found that, except near the Somerville shore, where
gravel and sand were found, from 10 to 20 feet of river mud
overlaid, and imperceptibly blended into, a stratum of sandy
silt of unknown depth. The work done at this crossing con-
sisted in laying two parallel lines of 36-inch cast iron pipes 5 feet
9 inches on centers under the river and connecting them by means
of Y-branches with the 48-inch pipes previously laid on each
shore.

In the early part of March, 1897, the contract for doing this
work was awarded to MacRitchie & Nichol, of Chicago, who
commenced operations about the middle of April. The first
work was the excavation of the trench for the pipes, and this
was done by the Eastern Dredging Company. The trench was
dug about 35 feet wide at the top, and had an average depth
of about 8 feet below the surface of the mud, the lowest point

^Division Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board.

fManuscript received March 16, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

194

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

dredged being about 16 feet below mean low water. During this
work the dredges were kept in line by ranges set upon shore, and
the depth was regulated by tide gages and marks on the dredging
apparatus and by sounding chains. Three different styles of
dredges were used, each suited for the particular place in which
it worked. From near the channel to the north shore the bed
of the river rose gradually; and, beginning at the channel, a
large dipper dredge excavated the material, working against an
almost perpendicular face, the material standing well if not left

Section of 36-iN. Flexible Joint. £'

Deflection, I in 8.

Plate I. Section of Special Joint for Putting Pipe Together Under

Water.

Spigot turned off and lead cast in bell.

too long. Across the channel, where the bottom was compara-
tively level, and where, on account of navigation and the opening
and closing of the draw, it was necessary to use a dredge more
easily handled, an ordinary clam-shell dredge was used. South
of the channel and well out of the way of vessels, a dredge having
an A frame and long boom on which was a clam-shell bucket
was used. From the north shore to the channel the material was
loaded into scows, towed about half a mile and dumped on the
mud flats, from which it was afterward re-dredged for filling
around the pipe. From the channel to the south shore the ma-
terial was deposited on the mud flats alongside the trench by
the scow with the long boom, and later replaced by the same

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS.

195

scow. The work of excavation occupied about forty-four days,
during which there were excavated about 11,000 yards of ma-
terial, an average of about 250 cubic yards, or 27 lineal feet, of
completed trench per day., In backfilling, the trench was filled
to a point about two feet above the tops of the pipes; 19 days
were employed on this work, 500 cubic yards being replaced per
<lay, — equivalent to backfilling about 63 lineal feet of trench. The
costs of the excavation and backfilling were respectively 54 cents
and 2$ cents per cubic yard. On account of the material en-
countered, it was decided to use a pile foundation for the pipes
throughout the entire length of crossing. The piles were of
spruce, driven about 23 feet into the river bottom by a floating
pile driver having a hammer weighing about 2000 pounds, work-
ing with a fall of about 15 feet. The piles were driven 6.3 feet on
centers, in two-pile bents, crosswise of the trench, and the bents
were spaced 12. 1 feet apart and in such position that each pipe,
when laid, would have a bearing on a pile bent about four feet
back of the face of the bell of the pipe, except at the spherical
joints, where an extra bent was driven in order that there might
be a support on each side of this joint. The piles were capped
with 10 x 10 spruce timber and were cut off and the caps bolted
on under water by a diver. The cost of cutting the piles and
bolting on the timber was $3 per pile, and the price for furnishing
and driving the piles was iz\ cents per gross pile foot.

The pipes under the river below Elevation 5, Boston city
base,* were furnished by the contractor after being inspected and
accepted by the Metropolitan Water Board. They were 1.65
inches thick and were of five different kinds, as shown in the
following table.

Length,
Feet.

Spherical bell with spherical

spigot j 12.53

Spherical bell with bead spigot ' 12.17
Grooved bell with spherical

spigot 12.59

Grooved bell with bead spigot 12.10

Grooved bell with taper spigot 10. 10

Sleeves

Weight,
Lbs.

8260
8140

8040
8210
8030

Cost per
Ton.

#23.90
23.90

23.90
17.90
22.90
40.OO

Lead per
Joint, Lbs.

81.5
81.5

81.5
128.3

Depth of

Lead
in Joint.

8 ins.

The spherical joints were similar to the Ward joint, a flexible
ball-and-socket joint designed for a maximum deflection of 1 in 10
in any direction without the spigot leaving the bell. In these

*Boston city base is 0.64 feet below mean low water.

ig6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

joints, however, the lead always remains in the spherical bell,
while a raised portion, cast on the spigot end of the next pipe
and turned truly spherical, plays against the stationary lead in
the pipe bell when the joint is deflected. At the base of this
raised portion is a stop, against which the face of the bell is
pressed when the maximum deflection of the joint is reached,
while in the spherical bell is a raised ring turned to a true circle,
which presses tightly against the raised portion cast on the spigot,
and prevents lead from running into the pipe when the joint is
run. On Plate I are shown sections of the spherical and taper
joints, and on Plate II is an elevation of the pipe-laying scow,
showing the method of laying the pipes. The scow used was of
the ordinary pattern, about 70 feet long and 23 feet wide, with a
flush deck. On this deck were erected two stiff-legged derricks
for laying the pipe, four winches for moving the scow, a 4-inch
centrifugal pump for jetting out the trench if it became filled, an
hydraulic pressure pump, furnishing power for pipe laying, an
air compresser used in testing for leakage and a boiler furnish-
ing steam to the pumps and the air compressor. On one side of
the scow was a straight truss, about 75 feet long, suspended from
the derrick in such a manner that a section of pipe fastened to
the lower chord of the truss would hang parallel with and just
clear of the side of the scow. On the opposite side of the scow
was a smaller scow, loaded with gravel, which was fastened to
the pipe-laying scow, and which served as a counterweight to
balance the pipe on the truss.

The pipes were made up on a temporary wharf, erected for
the purpose, not far from the work, usually in sections of six pipes
each. At one end of a section was a pipe with a grooved bell
and taper spigot, the other pipes being usually of the ordinary pat-
tern. Into the bell end of the last pipe in each section the taper
spigot of another pipe was temporarily inserted and the joint
run with lead.

When this joint had cooled, this spigot was pulled out, leav-
ing the lead joint in the bell. The pipe with this taper spigot
would be the first pipe used in the next section, and when this
next section was put in place this spigot would again be fitted
into the lead joint from which it had been pulled. After the
section was fastened to the truss by chains, the scow would be
warped into exact position by means of the winches and anchors.
When properly located, the section would be lowered on the
truss and placed as directed by a diver. On the end of the truss
nearest the pipes already laid was a hydraulic cylinder, to the

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS.

197

2 «

Oh

*H

198 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

piston of which was fastened an iron rod with a hook at the end.
A chain having been fastened back of the bell of the last pipe
laid, this hook would be fastened into it, and, when oil was forced
into the cylinder, the truss would be drawn forward and the
spigot of the first pipe attached to it would be forced home into
the bell of the last pipe laid. Fastened to the bell was an iron
collar which served the double purpose of enabling the diver to
more easily enter the spigot, and it also seemed to protect the lead
joint in the bell from being forced out of place by the spigot
being carelessly entered. Wooden bulkheads were kept in the
ends of the pipe sections until just before the spigot was forced
home, in order to keep mud and foreign bodies out of the pipe
line. Plate 10 shows a section of pipe ready to be lowered.

Across the river the pipes were laid in a straight line hori-
zontally, but where vertical deflections occurred the spherical
joints were used. These pipes with their joints were built into the
sections, the same as the other pipes, the joint being deflected to
fit the position in which it was to be placed. After the pipes
were all laid they were thoroughly calked by the diver, and then
tested for leakage before the trench was refilled. For use in
testing, a i^-inch hole had been drilled in the top of that pipe of
each line that was to be at the lowest point. While being laid, a
plug was screwed into this hole, but, when ready for testing, the
plug was removed by the diver, a bushing screwed in and a i-inch
wrought iron pipe screwed through the bushing. One end of
this pipe was opened and placed about one inch from the bottom
of the pipe. On the other end was a check valve, opening out-
ward. Manhole pipes, for allowing access to the interior of the
pipe lines, were placed on each line on both sides of the river,,
and through the covers of these pipes on the Somerville shore
holes were drilled and a flexible steam hose laid from the air com-
pressor on the pipe-laying scow moored near by. Air pressure
being put on, the water in the pipes was forced out through the
check valve on the inch pipe. When the water was all discharged,
this pipe was withdrawn, and the plug screwed back by the diver.
The 36-inch pipes were then inspected by members of the engi-
neering force, who went through both lines from end to end.
After this, air was pumped into the pipes, and a pressure of 25
pounds per square inch maintained for about a week. During
this time, several large leaks, that were indicated by the air
bubbles, were stopped by the diver calking the lead in the joints.
Water was then admitted, and after several trials of air and water
pressure a satisfactory pipe line was obtained. The same methods

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS. 199

and pipe-laying plant employed at the Mystic River were also
used in laying double 36-inch pipe lines under the Charles River
in two places in Cambridge.

The total cost of this work, including pipe, labor, materials
and an allowance for the use of the tools and plant, was about
$13.25 per lineal foot, of which $6.75 per lineal foot was paid for
the pipes.

MALDEN RIVER CROSSING — 36-INCH PIPES.

The 48-inch pipe line, a part of which has just been de-
scribed, also crosses under the Maiden River just north of the
bridge on Medford street, Maiden. At this place the river at
high tide is about 120 feet wide and 10 feet deep, while at low
water there is only a shallow stream a few feet wide. The ma-
terial encountered was a thin layer of river mud, overlying a
stratum of sand and gravel a few feet thick, under which was a
stiff blue clay, which made an excellent foundation on which to
lay the pipes, and an ideal cut-off into which to drive the sheet
piles of a coffer dam. On the east side of the river was a granite
sea wall, and in the center was a wooden draw pier about fifteen
feet wide, on a pile foundation. On the west bank, at the begin-
ning of the work, the marsh flats sloped to the water; but later,
under a separate contract with the owner of the land, a wooden
bulkhead was built by the firm doing the work for the Metro-
politan Water Board. As at the Mystic crossing, the work
to be done was to lay two lines of 36-inch cast iron pipes under
the river, and by Y-branches connect the two lines with the
48-inch pipes previously laid on each side. In this case, and in
those following, the pipes were furnished by the Metropolitan
Water Board. A contract for doing this work was made with
Moore & Co. and W. H. Ward, of Boston, and the work was
begun about the middle of October, 1897, and finished February 1,
1898. As there was very little navigation passing this point,
especially at this season of the year, the contractors decided to
use a coffer dam for laying the pipe'. The first work done was
to set up three large steam derricks, one on each side of the
river and one on the pier about half-way between the other two.
These derricks were so arranged that materials could be passed
by them from one end of the work to the other. In order to
build the coffer dam and lay the pipes, it was necessary to take
down portions of the sea wall, bridge and draw pier. In remov-
ing the sea wall, it was found to rest on piles, which it was ex-
pected could be capped for a platform for supporting the sea
wall over the pipe lines. When, however, the attempt was made

200 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

to saw these piles off, they fell out of their places, being only
about five feet long, and it was necessary to drive new
piles for the support of the wall. In taking down the
bridge pier it was desirable to remove several oak piles.
Two attempts were made to draw them; one by means of a
chain attached to the piles and to the end of the derrick boom,
and the second by means of a long timber used as a lever, the
long end of which was likewise attached to the boom. Although
a force estimated at about twelve tons was exerted, neither
method was successful, and the piles were sawed off. The walls
of the coffer dam were composed of a single thickness of 6-inch
spruce and 4-inch yellow pine timber, supported by spruce piles
and 8 x 12 spruce waling, tied together and braced as shown on
Plate III. The sheeting had grooves, into which hard pine splines
1 inch thick and 2 inches wide were placed. This sheeting was
about 24 feet long, and was driven by an ordinary land pile-
driving machine into the clay about two feet below the bottom
of the proposed pipe. In driving, the sheeting was kept close up
to that already driven by an iron dog and an oak wedge which
was tapped with a maul from time to time as it loosened under
the driving. For the support of the pile driver, a few spruce piles
were driven out in the river by means of the pile-driving ma-
chine erected on a raft made of oil barrels and large timbers.
On these piles and the bridge a scaffolding was placed, and on
this the pile driver worked while driving the sheet piles in the
coffer dam. Between the walings, the coffer dam was 14 feet 6
inches wide, and was built in two sections, each extending to
the middle of the river, and one removed before the other was
built. The first section was about 85 feet long, and at
its river end two cross walls about eight feet apart were built.
When the rest of this section was removed, these walls and the
longitudinal walls connecting them were not removed, but be-
came the river end of the second section. In each of these cut-off
walls a gate was built, so that the dam could be flooded if neces-
sary. The coffer dam was comparatively tight, but to avoid
straining it was customary to open the gate and flood the dam
when the tide had risen to within two or three feet of the top.
When the tide fell, the gate being open, the water would fall
inside the dam to the bottom of the gate and the remainder would
be pumped out by a 6-inch centrifugal pump. About two hours
was necessary to free the dam from the water. In
removing the coffer dam, an attempt was made to draw
the sheeting for use in the other portions, but after

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS. 201

several attempts had been made without success, it was cut
off about one foot below the top of the pipes. In removing the
round piles, they were first sawed off as low as possible and a
i^-inch hole bored down into the pile four or five feet. A dyna-
mite cartridge was then pushed to the bottom of the hole and
exploded by a battery on shore, and the pile would be broken
off as low down as the cartridge was placed. Across the river
the pipe was laid with its top about five feet below the river bed.
The pipes used were about 1.65 inches thick; the lead space in
the joint was about five inches deep and took about 150 pounds
of lead when run solid. In laying the pipes, work was begun in
the center of the river and the pipes laid up each side. The spigot
end of the first pipe to be laid was put through a circular hole in
the inner of the two cut-off walls mentioned above, and the space
between the plank and the pipe calked tightly, to prevent water
coming in when this inner wall became the outside wall of the
next section. When the next section was ready, a sleeve was put
on this spigot end and then the pipes were laid up the bank. On
account of the cold weather and the large amount of lead to be
poured into a joint, it was found expedient to run the joint at two
pourings, — one from the sides and the other on top. A clay roll
was used long enough to go completely around the pipe and
make sufficient gate at the top. For the first pouring this roll
would be brought two-thirds the way round the pipe and lead
poured into the joint from each side of the pipe up to this point;
the ends of the roll would then be brought over the top of the
pipe and the remainder of the joint poured in the ordinary man-
ner. These joints were perfectly satisfactory, and when the pipe
was tested it showed no leakage whatever. The excavation,
backfilling, pipe-laying and handling timber and machinery were
done by the derricks, and on this account only a minimum number
of men were employed. The estimated cost of building the coffer
dam was about $13 per lineal foot.

MYSTIC RIVER CROSSING 20-INCH PIPE.

As a part of the main pipe line supplying the town of Arling-
ton with water, a 20-inch pipe was laid under Mystic River just
north of the bridge on High street, Medford, which is also just
below the lower of the two Mystic Lakes. For this crossing a
pipe 1 inch thick and weighing about 2700 pounds per 12-foot
length was used. This pipe was of the ordinary bell-and-spigot
type, but made extra thick to provide for deterioration from
rust, etc.

202 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The location of the pipe crossing is 60 feet north of the
bridge, the river being here about 35 feet wide and having a
maximum depth of 3^ feet. The top of the pipes were laid one
foot below the bottom of the river bed at its lowest point. On
the east side the ground slopes gradually to the water, while
on the west bank there is a rough retaining wall about 1^ feet
high. The work of making this crossing was included in the
pipe-laying contract of Bruno & Salomone, of Boston, and was
begun about the 1st of June, 1899, on the east bank of the river.

A section of coffer dam 5 feet wide inside, starting about
fifteen feet back from the edge of the stream, was built about thirty
feet out into the river and securely bulkheaded. The sheeting
used on this section was ordinary spruce plank 2 inches thick
and about 8 feet long, driven about one foot below the bottom
of the trench. The material taken from this trench was sandy
clay and was banked about outside of the sheeting. Very little
water came in through this material, one hand pump easily keep-
ing the trench dry. Three pipes were laid in this trench and a
bulkhead built just back of the last bell. When this work was
done, pairs of 4 x 4-inch stakes about 5 feet long were driven
on each side of the line of the proposed trench at intervals of
about ten feet across the river. These stakes were thoroughly
secured to each other by 2-inch planks, spiked between
them both with and across the current. On this foundation
was placed a platform for supporting the derricks, pumps, etc.
Later, other 2-inch planks were spiked to the posts cross-
ways of the river and fastened to them as far down in the
water as was possible. These planks helped to confine the gravel
and clay that was packed around outside the sheeted trench.

About ten or twelve feet on each side of the line of the
trench, and also across the end about two feet beyond where it
was intended to stop this section, a dam of sand bags was built.
The bags used were 50-pound coffee bags filled with sand, and
were laid three or four tiers high.

After this portion of the work was finished, 3-inch tongued-
and-grooved planks, about 8 feet long, were driven in
two parallel lines about five feet apart, and the material excavated
was thrown around the outside of the sheeting, between it and
the sand bag dam previously built. In the bottom of the trench the
material was found to be gravelly, but one hand pump was suffi-
cient to handle the water. When the pipes were laid in this
section, a bulkhead similar to that used, in the preceding section
was built. These bulkheads served as the rear end of the trench

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS.

203

when a new section was opened, and allowed the bell end of the
pipe already laid to project into the new section of trench. After
the pipe was laid and backfilled, the sheeting was pulled, and
the sand bags in the side walls were taken up and moved ahead

Plan Cut off Walla

■A Sheeting

■i Sheeting

Feet

Plate III. Plan and Sections of
Coffer Dam, Malden River, 1898.

Meters

Plate IV. Plan and Sections of
Coffer Dam, Mystic River, 1899.

to form the walls of the next section, which extended from about
the center of the river to the west bank and completed the cross-
ing. The sand bags in the end were also taken up and moved back
into the stream till they were just back of the bulkheaded por-
tion of the pipe, and when the same process of filling with clay
[2:]

204 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

and driving the sheeting had been finished, this portion of the
pipe was inside the coffer dam. Less care was taken with this
section, and three hand pumps were necessary to take care of the
water. Plate IV shows a plan and sections of the coffer dams.
The total cost of the work was estimated to be about $7 per lineal
foot.

SAUGUS RIVER CROSSING 20-INCH PIPE.

-Nahant and Swampscott having, in 1898, applied for permis-
sion to enter the Metropolitan Water District, it became neces-
sary to lay a main for their supply. On the line of this main it
was necessary to cross the Saugus River on Broadway at the
Fox Hill bridge, between Lynn and Saugus.

The Saugus River at this point is a tidal stream varying in
width from about 500 feet at high water to about 250 feet
at low water, the average rise and fall of the tides being about ia
feet, and there being a maximum depth of about 5 feet in the
channel at low water. From rod soundings it was found that the
bed of the river was composed of a stratum of river mud varying
in depth from 4 to 10 feet and overlying a stratum of silt
containing more or less coarse sand. Three plans were some-
what considered for crossing this river: one to lay an entirely
submerged line, another to lay the pipe wholly above water in a
box attached to the bridge and the third a combination of the
other two. The principal objection to the first was the expense,
especially as it seemed likely that a pile foundation would be
necessary the whole distance. To the second plan the objection
was that, although the existing draw was very narrow and had
not been used for a long time, yet, on account of certain wharf
privileges further up, it would have been difficult, without con-
siderable expense, to obtain permission to permanently close it
to navigation. The third method was adopted, and it was decided
to carry the pipe inclosed in a box on the bridge as far as the
channel and to cross this by an inverted siphon similar to those in
use at several of the river crossings in Boston and described by
Mr. Brackett in a paper before this Society published in the
Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies for
February, 1886. This siphon consisted of a cast iron pipe sur-
rounded with concrete and boxed with heavy timbers thoroughly
bolted together. The shape of this siphon was like three sides of
a parallelogram, the middle side resting on the bottom of the
river about twelve feet below Boston city base and the two other
sides standing one on each side of the channel forty-five feet apart.

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS. 205

About the time it was intended to lay this pipe, the Lynn and Bos-
ton Street Railway Company decided to widen the existing bridge
and so obtain a portion that could be used exclusively by them.
Arrangements were made with the railroad company and their
plans modified to the extent of driving extra piles west of the
bridge in all the pile bents and extending their girder caps about
six feet. On the foundation thus formed was placed the pipe box
afterward built.

In the last part of March, 1899, the contract for building the
pipe boxes and siphon was awarded to W. H. Ryan & Co., of
East Boston, and the work of getting ready the materials was
at once begun.

The siphon box was framed and fitted at a lumber yard at
East Boston, then partially taken apart, loaded onto a lighter and
carried to the site of the proposed work. The box was built of
first quality hard pine lumber, bolted and strapped together. The
dimensions of the lumber and detail of the bolting is shown on
the plan and elevation on Plate V. A trench was dredged across
the channel to receive the bottom portion of the siphon, and two
of the four guard piles about each of the upright portions were
driven to serve as guides in lowering the box..

In the dredged trench two bents of two spruce piles each
were driven and cut off as far down as possible at low water.
These piles were capped with 14 x 14-inch hard pine riders at
right angles to the trench, the caps being held in place with iron
dogs. At high water the bottom portion of the box was floated
into place directly over the pile caps, and at low water it was
allowed to settle down upon them, where it was securely held from
again floating by cross-braces bolted to the surrounding piles.
The outer and two side pieces of the vertical portions were then
bolted into place during succeeding low water periods, while at
high water work Was done on the pipe box on the bridge.
Before placing the inner sides of the vertical portions and the top
of the horizontal part, the pipe was laid by the Maintenance Force
of the Water Board. As there was only 2 feet and 8 inches clear-
ance inside the box, which was not sufficient to properly calk the
joints after the pipe was put in, the pipe for the bottom portion,
including the two 20-inch one-quarter curves, was made up and
bolted together with i^-inch steel rods and turn buckles, the pipe
Testing on cross timbers which in turn rested on the side walls of
the box, so that the pipe was directly over its proposed position.
When the joints had been made up and calked, the pipe was
raised by four pipe jacks, the cross-timbers taken out and the

206 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

pipe lowered into its place in the box. After lowering, the joints
were carefully examined, and, no movement being apparent, Port-
land cement concrete in the proportion of 1-2-4 and mixed rather
wet was put all around the pipe up to the top of the side timbers,
and the top was then bolted on.

The vertical pipes were readily placed in position, as all the
inside timbers and the outside key pieces were left out in order
to give room for the pipe work. After one pipe had been placed
in the uprights on each side, the timbers were bolted on and the
space between the pipe and box was filled with concrete, thor-
oughly rammed with a long stick. The upper pipes in the ver-
ticals were not laid until the siphon had been lowered, and then
at low water the bells of the pipes already laid were out of water.
The vertical portions were tied together with i^-inch rods, which
were held in place by templates while the concrete was being
put in.

For lowering the siphon, several methods were suggested, —
one, that professional riggers be employed and lower it by means
of shears erected on the bridge; another, that two lighters be
used, which, being lashed to the siphon at high water, would
allow it to settle into place with the fall of the tide. Either of
these methods was feasible, but the following method was em-
ployed and was much the cheapest and in many respects the most
satisfactory. A building mover having been engaged, the four
guard piles which had now been driven about the vertical por-
tions were cut off level with the tops of the girder caps in the
bridge. Two 14 x 14 hard pine timbers were placed, one on
each side of the upright portions; on these timbers a crib work
of blocking, such as is used in house moving, was built around
the upright parts of the siphon to a point about two feet below
their tops. The method employed in lowering the siphon is shown
on Plate IX.

At the top, four heavy timbers were tightly clamped to the
verticals by means of -|-inch iron rods, and just above these clamps
holes were bored in the timbers and iron plugs, 2 inches in
diameter, were driven in. Under the clamps, and resting upon
the blocking, building movers' jack-screws were placed. At first
eight were used to each vertical, but later six were found to be
enough. When all was ready, the screws were tightened just
enough to raise the siphon box clear of the pile caps on which it
rested; these caps were then removed and the work of lowering
the box was begun. This work was continued without accident

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS. 207

until the box rested on the bottom of the trench dredged to re-
ceive it. The total time employed in lowering the siphon from
the time the first block was placed until the last was removed was

three and a half days, and the siphon was lowered at the rate of
about one foot per hour during the time the jacks were in use.
The total weight resting on the jacks, when the siphon was first
raised to take out the pile caps under it, was about 67 tons.

208 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

After standing for about two hours, levels were taken on
the uprights, and the next day, when levels were again taken,
it was found that there had been a settlement of about 0.15 feet.
After this no further settlement was noticed, although levels were
taken from time to time for about a month.

After lowering the siphon, a fender guard was built around
the exposed ends and portions of the old pier which it was
necessary to remove were rebuilt. Crossing the bridge and rest-
ing on the foundation previously spoken of, the pipes are carried
in a double wooden frost box (shown on Plate V), the outer
box being of white pine sheething about 4 feet and 9 inches by
3 feet and 6 inches, and the inner box being of spruce 3 feet and
9 inches wide and 2 feet high. The tops of these boxes are in
short sections fastened down with lag screws, and if necessary
the pipe for its entire length in the box could readily be exposed.
This box was about 470 feet long. After the bottom and sides
were in place, the pipes were laid by the Maintenance Department,
the pipes being first delivered onto a lighter and by it hoisted into
place. The estimated cost of the pipe box was $4.40 per lineal
foot, or $46 per M. B. M. for lumber used. The cost of the
siphon, exclusive of pipe laying and concrete, was $18.50 per
lineal foot, or $112 per M. B. M. for lumber used. The concrete
cost $7 per cubic yard in place, and the cost of the pipe laying,
everything included, was $3.20 per lineal foot.

CHARLES RIVER CROSSING 20-INCH PIPE.

For the supply of Watertown and Belmont, it was necessary
to lay a 20-inch pipe across the Charles River at a point nearly
opposite St. James street, in Newton, and Irving street, in Water-
town.

The river at this point is a tidal stream about 315 feet wide
and varying in depth from 2 to 6 feet, depending on the
height of the tide and the discharge from the mills further up the
river. The work at this river crossing was included in a pipe-
laying contract awarded to E. W. Everson & Co., of Providence,
and this part of the work was begun June 21 and finished August
27, 1898. The material encountered in the river bed was a grav-
elly clay, in places very hard to excavate, but allowing very little
water to percolate through it into the trench. The trench
was dug about 5 feet wide at the bottom and 25 feet wide at
the top. For the greater part of the way the average depth of
the trench was 8 feet below the river bottom; but for a
distance of about 100 feet it was 11 feet deep, in order to

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS. 209

provide for a proposed channel. The excavation was almost
wholly done by a steam excavator which was designed and used
for the excavation of pipe trenches on land. This machine con-
sisted of a double-drum hoisting engine mounted on a platform,
which also carried a boom derrick on a turntable. This machine
rested on four flanged wheels, which in turn rested on T-rails. By
means of "dead men" and ropes attached to the engine drums this
machine could be drawn forward or backward on the rails. At-
tached to the boom of the derrick was a bucket similar to that
used on a dipper dredge, and by means of wire ropes and an
anchor this bucket could be pulled some distance from the en-
gine, dropped into the trench, and when pulled back by other
ropes the bucket would be filled with the material in the bottom
of the trench. When the engine was reached, the bucket would
be hoisted up the derrick, turned to the side and the material
in the bucket dumped alongside the trench. Except at very high
water this machine could work at any time. A portion of the
trench about 50 feet long was usually excavated and the material
piled about the sides, forming a dam, the top of which was about
four feet higher than the river bed. At high tide the water
would flow over the top of this dam, filling the trench, but when
the tide fell below the top of the embankment a 6-inch centrifu-
gal pump would rapidly clear the trench of water and the pipes
would be laid and calked while the water was down. The back-
filling was done by men with shovels. No especial difficulty was
encountered in laying the pipes, and the plan employed was ex-
cellent except that the machine was designed in the first place
to excavate less compact material; and many delays occurred in
making repairs and adapting portions of the machine to the
work, and for this reason the cost was greatly increased. The
cost of excavation and backfill was about $7 per lineal foot. The
cost of the pipe laying, excluding the cost of the pipe, was $0.80
per lineal foot.

CHELSEA CREEK CROSSING — 24-INCH PIPE.

Up to the summer of 1900 the water supply of East Boston
had been obtained through two cast iron pipe lines laid under
Chelsea Creek from a point on Marginal street, Chelsea, near
the Magee Furnace Company's foundry to a point near the junc-
tion of Condor and Brooks streets, East Boston.

Chelsea Creek at this point is a tidal stream about 1450 feet
wide at high water and about 600 feet wide at low water; the
range of the tides is about 10 feet, and when the tide is out there
is a maximum depth of about 25 feet of water in the channel.

210 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

On account of the depth of water, there is considerable
traffic on the stream at all stages of the tide to and from the
numerous iron foundries and coal and oil wharves. One of the
existing pipe lines was 20 inches in diameter and was laid
about 1850; the other line was 24 inches in diameter and
laid in 1871. The former line was so badly tuberculated and cor-
roded that it had been practically out of commission for the past
few years, and existed only as an emergency line in case of acci-
dent to the other. The Boston Water Department had intended
to relay this line and had bought the pipes, but before the work of
laying them was begun both lines were taken by the Metropoli-
tan Water Board, and the work was done under its direction, the
pipes being brought from the city of Boston. In the paper by
Mr. Brackett, mentioned above, sketches of the flexible joints
used on both lines are shown and a description is given of them.
Concerning the method of laying the older pipe, Mr. Brackett
says : "This pipe was prepared on a staging and lowered by tackle
into the trench, which was then filled with gravel and clay." After
the trench was dredged for the new pipe line, the diver encoun-
tered a number of piles at various places across the channel, which
probably were portions of this staging, and when the old pipes
were removed, nearly all the flexible castings had a rope sling
about them.

Previous to letting the contract for the pipe laying, both lines
of pipe were located as well as possible by rod soundings. These
soundings were taken, from a raft anchored in the stream, by
men using a rod made up of 15-foot lengths of f-inch gas pipe
coupled together. The soundings were located by angle and
stadia distance from a point on a platform built on one of the
fender guards near by- On account of the depth of water and the
strength of the current and the peculiar manner in which the
pipes were laid, much difficulty was experienced in locating the
pipe, and at times it seemed as if the bottom of the river might
be covered with pipes. However, after repeated soundings, a
line was at last determined upon, where the pipe at any rate
ought to be located, and later, when the pipe was removed, it
actually was found very nearly as expected. Early in August,
1900, the contract for removing the existing 20-inch pipes, laying
the new line of 24-inch pipes and rebuilding the pile fender guards
and dolphins, which were badly decayed, was awarded to Messrs.
MacRitchie & Nichol, of Chicago, the same firm that had suc-
cessfully laid the submerged pipes at the Mystic and Charles
River crossings.

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS. 211

For about 200 feet on the Chelsea side and for about 750
feet on the East Boston side of the channel the existing pipes
rested on a pile foundation, raised only a very little above the
surface of the mud flats, and were wholly exposed and unpro-

Plate VI. Stow Raising Old 20-iN. Pipe.

tected at low water. These pipes were of the ordinary bell-and-
spigot type, but only 9 feet long. Originally the walls of the
pipes had been seven-eighths of an inch in thickness, as was
shown by the measurement of the spigot end of a pipe which
was pulled out of the bell on the next pipe to it. Beside the

2i2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

fact that the whole barrel of these pipes was somewhat reduced in
thickness, there were also many places where the rim had be-
come softened and could be cut into for a quarter of an inch
with a knife. After removal, both the pipes above low water,
as well as those below, were found to be very badly tuberculated,
the inside diameter of the pipes being reduced as much as two
inches with a solid mass of incrustation. Below low water the
pipes were laid with a peculiar swivel joint, which was so de-
signed that it allowed the freest possible motion vertically, but
allowed no deflection horizontally. These pipes and specials were
all connected together with flanged joints. The straight pipes
were 9 feet in length and at the end of each three pipe section
one of these joints was used, making a right-angled offset in the
pipe line.

These pipes were if inches thick, and when covered with clay
the iron was excellently preserved. After the pipes were uncov-
ered by a dredge they were lifted from the bottom in short sec-
tions by the shears and tackle on a large wrecking scow and taken
away, becoming the property of the contractor. The method of
raising is shown on Plate VI, where a section with one of the
flexible joints is being hoisted. Above low water the pipes were
broken by sledges into two-pipe sections and raised by the scow
afterward employed in laying the 24-inch pipes. The pipes relaid
above low water were 0.95 inches thick, having ordinary bell-and-
spigot joints, and the iron of which they were made was of a spe-
cial composition which it was expected would resist corrosion
to a considerable extent. Below low water the pipes were 1.25
inches thick and had ball-and-socket joints similar to those used
at the Mystic and Charles River crossings, and described above.
In laying the pipes, both above and below low water, a large
scow about 75 feet long and 25 feet wide, with a flush deck, was
used. The scow was hired by the contractors, who themselves
fitted it out with winches, derricks and slide for lowering the pipe.
Winches were employed to move the scow by means of anchor
lines. For lowering the pipe two stiff-legged derricks and a
curved slide were used for the pipe laid below low water, while for
that laid above low water only the derricks were used. The slide
or cradle by means of which the pipes were laid below low water
was about 75 feet long and built curved in shape to an 80-foot
radius, which was a little less than the maximum deflection to
which the pipes could be laid. This slide was well braced and
trussed and hung by wire ropes from the larger of the two der-
ricks, the other derrick being used to raise or lower the tail end

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS.

213

2i4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

of the slide, so that it might at all times be tangent to the bottom
of the dredged trench. The tackle was so arranged that the
whole slide could be raised or lowered vertically or tipped at any
angle in a vertical plane. On the tail end of the slide was a
wooden shoe, about 4 feet long, for the purpose of making the
slide rest more evenly on the bottom; this shoe also probably
served to even off small irregularities along the bottom of the
trench. An elevation of this scow is shown in Plate VII.
In the first place, this slide was filled with pipes, the
joints of which were leaded. The scow was then worked into
proper position at high tide, and the tail end of the slide was
tilted down until it rested on the bottom of the river, but at such
a depth that the end of the pipe would be exposed at low water.
This end of the pipe was then securely anchored and the scow
pulled ahead about twelve feet, causing the pipe to be pulled
down the slide. Another pipe was then placed in the slide by a
small boom derrick and the process repeated until all these pipes
had been placed in the cradle and slid down into the trench
dredged across the channel. This work is shown on Plate VIII.
During the work the pipes were stored on a large lighter moored
a short distance away, while for the immediate work ten or twelve
pipes were stored on the pipe-laying scow and a smaller scow that
served as a tender. The laying of the fifty-four pieces of sub-
merged pipe actually occupied two weeks. Above low water the
pipes were laid on the same pile foundation as had supported the
previous pipe line; the piles were thoroughly examined, and, al-
though they had been in use such a long time, they were found
to be perfectly sound below the mud line, and only a little de-
cayed on the outsides of the piles for the portion above the mud.
In laying this portion of the pipe line the pipes were usually made
up in four-pipe sections on the scow, which was floated approxi-
mately into position at high water and the pipe lowered onto the
pile caps. At low water these sections were pulled together with
tackle and falls and the joint between them leaded. After the
pipes were all laid, the joints both above and below low water
were thoroughly calked. When completed, the pipe line was sub-
jected to a hydrostatic test of eight-four pounds per square inch
for sixty minutes and the leakage recorded by the flow through a
^-inch meter was barely perceptible. For dredging and
lining the pipe, ranges were set up on each shore, and by
means of the quarter lines, the scows were easily kept in line.
For stationing and location, ranges were set on the Meridian
street bridge, which was about 1000 feet away and about parallel

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS. 215

with the work. These ranges were so placed that lines drawn
through them and a prominent church spire in Charleston would
intersect stations on the pipe line. To distinguish the station,
large squares of white canvas, with solid black figures about
a foot high, were nailed under each of the ranges. For keep-

er

K
O

FL,

.J

>

Ph

ing the slide from which the pipe was laid in proper position
m relation to the bottom of the trench, a profile of the trench
was drawn on paper and a paper model of the slide cut out
to the same scale as that to which the profile was drawn. Know-
ing the depth of the water at any station from elevation of

216 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

the tide, read from tide gages located near by, the bottom of the
slide could be readily adjusted and kept tangent to the bottom,
of the river by placing it in similar position to that of the modeL
In the spherical joints 130 pounds of lead per joint was used,,
while the ordinary joints took about 53 pounds. Of the
lead used, about two tons was recovered from the joints in the
old 20-inch line.

The cost of this work per lineal foot, estimated from the force
accounts kept by the inspector, was : —

For removing the existing pipe and laying the pipe with,
spherical joints, $8.25, and for removing and laying the pipe with,
ordinary joints above low water, $2.25. These figures do not
include the cost of the pipe, nor do they take into account anything
which may have been received for the old pipe. A rental value for
the use of the plant is included, and the cost of the dredging was
estimated from a rental value of the dredges.

The costs which have been given above for the several river
crossings are the actual costs to the contractors doing the workr
estimated from notes and force accounts kept by the inspectors-
on the work. In giving these costs, it has seemed that the cost
per lineal foot would be of as much value as a more detailed state-
ment. While there is every reason to believe that the figures-
are very near the actual cost, yet this work itself is of such special
nature that the same conditions under which it was done might
never again be encountered, and other conditions would probably
modify the cost so that the detailed figures could only be used
by one thoroughly familiar with the circumstances under which,
the figures were obtained.

It may also be said that the actual cost of any engineering
work which has been successfully completed without accident
should only be used as a basis for estimating similar work.

Experience and judgment should dictate allowances to be
made for unexpected conditions or mishaps.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Clemens Herschel (by letter). — To the description of
the several methods of laying water pipe under and across rivers-
given by Mr. Saville, it seems fitting to add another, showing a
method devised and used by the writer five years ago to convey
watsr across the Passaic River at Belleville, N. J. At this point the
Passaic River is a tidal stream, with a mud bottom, mud flats or
wharves on either side, about 600 feet wide between highwater
lines, some 15 feet deep, and about 4 feet of tide and considerable

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS.

217

navigation on the river daily. The problem was to connect two
42-inch steel pipes, carrying some 40,000,000 gallons daily under
some 350-foot head at the river, and it seemed to the writer that no
form of flexible joint would answer the purpose ; for the reason
thac such joints, even when well made and water-tight at the outset,
would, under the pressure named, soon wear or cut out and cause an
undue loss of water by leakage. At such high pressures lead will
cut out under the action of even very minute jets of water, like a
softer substance would under the effect of streams at ordinary
pressures, and any effect of that sort will proceed more and more

u /

8 •

m n

1

n

H&hiJ,

131

1 J "

V^^?"~40^

//-

- - ,^mc <:.

»- . ^, ,4*P^

Plate IX. Lowering 20-ix. Siphon Box, Saugus River.

rapidly as the escaping streams enlarge and as time goes on. It
seemed to the writer that this consideration and the locality named
positively excluded all forms of leaded joint.

Instead, he was led to reflect that while the ordinary screw-
joint may be called a stiff joint, yet a pipe line 600 or more feet
long, when made up of 20-foot lengths with screw joints, would
"have considerable flexibility. A piece of bamboo two or three
inches long is a very stiff thing when observed by our gross
senses, but the same bamboo twenty feet long can be bent into a
circle without breaking and with perfect ease. Similarly, a four-

218 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

foot riveted steel pipe is a rigid structure, in the ordinary sense
of the term, but a line of it 500 feet long will readily bend to a
circle of 1500 feet radius, and, what is very important, without
even starting leaks in it. I have seen such a pipe (500 or 600 feet
in length) float out of the trench it had been laid in, arrange
itself in graceful reversed curves on the surface of the ground,
and yet be apparently none the worse for its adventure after it
had again been forced back into the original ditch.

Most pipe lines would float in water, and to remain on the
bottom, while empty, would have to be loaded.

The plan adopted was, therefore, upon these considerations,
to lay seven parallel lines of 18-inch lap-welded steel pipes, with
screw joints, and loaded by cast iron reinforcements at each joint,
by means of dragging the pipe line across the bottom of the river
in a trench dredged for the purpose, and this was successfully
done without the slightest mishap except unimportant ones dur-
ing the first attempts on the first of the seven lines. The seven
lines have been in use now about five years and have never leaked.
I know this, because there is a Venturi meter on each side of the
river, both of which are read and compared daily.

The pipe lines were put together on one shore in 200-foot
sections; that is to say, 200 feet of pipe was put together, a
temporary cap was placed at the two ends, and while keeping
the pipe full of compressed air (to detect leaks) the 200-foot
length was hauled out into the river by an ordinary hoisting en-
gine set up on'the opposite shore. The loading of the pipe having
been so proportioned that there was only a slight excess of weight
over the power of flotation, this hauling over was really a very
simple matter. The first 200 feet once hauled out into or under
the river, the inshore cap could be taken off, another 200 feet joined
on, the cap be now replaced and the process first above de-
scribed could be repeated, and again repeated, until the end first
launched appeared above water on the opposite shore.

So satisfactory was the plan pursued that, were I to repeat
it, I should not hesitate an instant to haul across one 42-inch
riveted pipe in the manner described, rather than seven lines of
18-inch pipe. At moment of writing, this plan of operation has
been adopted for laying a 6-foot steel, riveted pipe across a tidal
stream. In this case the pipe must be braced on the inside to
withstand the water pressure tending to collapse the pipe, but
this bracing will form the load needed to keep the pipe on the
bottom until it is laid from shore to shore. In this, and in every
case of hauling pipes or tubes in the manner here described, the

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS.

219

220 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

loading need never cause the pipe or tube to weigh more than
a desired amount in water, thus making the work of hauling the
pipe or tube across a simple matter. To diminish the amount
of flexure of this pipe, it will be built on a vertical curve.

Once across, the 6-foot pipe is to be encased in concrete and
this again loaded with rip-rap, upon which the interior bracing
may be removed; the bracing to be made originally in form
permitting of an examination or caulking of the pipe from the
interior, while it is being hauled across.

So much being said, it follows that pipes or tubes of any
diameter could thus be hauled across and underneath navigable
waterways; and I have, in fact, proposed this method not only
for the laying of sub-aqueous gas and water pipes and sewers,
but also for the construction of sub-aqueous tunnels.

In the case of gas and water pipes and sewers, the method
above described is by far the most economical, and produces,
moreover, a tight and durable pipe, where flexible joints would
give trouble from excessive leakage. The same advantage of
reduced cost is true in most cases of sub-aqueous tunnels.

Mr. F. A. McInnes (by letter). — The methods recently em-
ployed by the Boston Water Department, under the direction of the
City Engineer, in laying a 12-inch main under Shirley Gut, in
Boston Harbor, differ from any described in the Saville papers, and,
while extremely simple, may prove of some interest.

Shirley Gut is a short, narrow channel separating Deer
Island from the mainland. At the point where the pipe crossing
was made it is 350 and 150 feet wide, at high and at low water
respectively, with 12 feet of water at low tide. At the same point,
fifty years ago, it was 400 feet wide and 50 feet deep at low water.

A storm from almost any direction will often materially
change its topography, while under the best conditions the sand
and gravel, through which the channel flows, offer no inviting
field for excavation, particularly as the current is extremely fast
and the periods of slack water very short. These conditions de-
manded quick work, and made the possibility of failure unpleas-
antly prominent.

The pipe line was first put together on a cradle (on the Win-
throp shore) extending back from high-water mark on a slightly
rising grade. Under the cradle were 4-inch wooden rolls, rest-
ing on a platform. Each pipe was made fast to a 4-inch hawser,
the latter being strained tightly as the "seizings" were made.. A
trench, 5 feet deep, very wide on each shore and about 3 feet deep
in midstream, was then dug across the channel. This part of the

SUBMERGED PIPE CROSSINGS. 221

work was done in four days by an ordinary dipper dredge, its
success depending entirely upon good weather. The trench com-
pleted, it was necessary to finish the work with all possible speed.
A 4^-inch line, fastened to a "deadman" on the Deer Island shore,
was carried across the Gut through a block on the 4-inch hawser at
the end of the pipe; again across the Gut through a second block,
and thence to a steam winch. At the first period of slack water,
power was applied and the pipe moved readily, being kept on the
platform by a number of men "cutting" the rolls as occasion de-
manded. As it entered the water, empty oil casks, which had
previously been recoopered and fitted with fastenings, were tied
to the pipe, the object being to reduce the weight a little more

Length to B. loft. r.

Section of 12-iN. Flexible Pipe.
Length over all, 12 ft. 6.67 in. Figured weight, 1815 lbs. Deflection, 1 in 4.5.

than one-half. It was absolutely necessary that the pipe should
remain in the trench, at all points, out of the full force of the
current. With a few slight interruptions, caused by its flexibility
on the platform, the pipe moved steadily across the channel to a
point about half way between high- and low-water mark. Here
progress became so slow, and the strain on the ropes so great that it
was deemed wise to "let well enough alone'' and to lay the next two
or three pipes at the succeeding low tide. At slack water the casks
were cut away by a diver. After two or three small leaks near the
shores were calked, the line was tested and found to be practically
tight. The trench was then filled in. Under favorable conditions
of small current and stable bottom, a short pipe line can be laid, very
cheaply and safely, in the general manner described above.

222 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The pipe used was one inch thick, weighing 1820 pounds per
12-foot length. It was of special design, very similar to one of
the pipes described by Mr. Saville. The spigot is turned to a true
spherical form, and a raised ring is also turned in the bell, to fit the
curvature of the spigot. A stop prevents too much deflection in
the joint. Two lead scores were used. This design, shown in
detail in the accompanying figure, causes the lead to remain in the
bell whatever position the pipes lay, a desirable point when joints
must be calked under water.

THE GROUP THEORY OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES. 223

EXTENSION OF THE GROUP THEORY OF ATOMS
AND MOLECULES.

By Arthur A. Skeels, Member of the Civil Engineers' Club of

Cleveland.

[Read before the Club, February 26, 1901.*]

The great importance of a clear understanding of the laws
which govern the properties and phenomena of matter, both
physical and chemical, is self-evident.

The great achievements of modern science are due to the
fact that we understand nature and her laws better than did our
fathers, and the still greater marvels to be accomplished in the
future will be due to a still better insight into the natural laws
which govern matter in its properties and transformations.

So vast is the importance of this knowledge that it is surely
worth our while to consider anything which even possibly may
give us a little more light upon the many difficult problems ahead.

The contents of this paper give a few of the results and con-
clusions of several years of study. The limits of the paper will
naturally allow only a brief discussion of these conclusions, and,

red

violet

Fig. 1

if some of the ideas advanced seem to be radically different from
those commonly accepted, it must be remembered that, while a thing
is not always advantageous because it is new, yet if we follow
exactly in the footsteps of our predecessors we cannot hope to
learn new truths.

Scientists in general believe matter to be composed of mole-
cules, and the molecule to be made up of atoms. For example,
a molecule of water is the smallest particle of water that can exist
as water. The molecule of water is in turn taken as composed
of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen; but only
recently has the possibility of the divisibility of the atom been
seriously considered.

When light is refracted, as by passing through a prism, it is
also dispersed ; the waves of shorter length are separated from the
longer ones, forming a spectrum. Different substances, in gen-
eral, give out different kinds of light, and so form different spectra.
The spectrum of hydrogen is approximately as Fig. 1.

■ - '■" - . ... .... — . 1 H

♦Manuscript received March 18, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

224 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The four lines show four different wave lengths of light, cor-
responding to 6562, 4861, 4340 and 4101 ten-millionths of a milli-
meter.

There may be other lines outside of the visible spectrum, not
yet discovered, but at any rate the spectrum shows that hydrogen
gives out light of at least four different wave lengths. If the vibra-
tions of molecules produce this light, and if the molecules are
exactly similar in all respects, how can they give four different
wave lengths ?

If the vibrations of atoms produce this light, how can the
vibration of atoms, which are exactly alike in all respects, give four
different wave lengths ?

If the vibrations of both atoms and molecules produce the
light, how can we account for more than two different wave
lengths ?

The spectrum of oxygen is approximately as Fig. 2.

That is, oxygen gives as many different wave lengths as there
are lines in the spectrum. How can the vibrations of one kind of

Fiff. 2

molecules or one kind of atoms produce so many different wave
lengths ?

It seems to me that the only logical conclusion is that the
atom of oxygen is composed of as many parts as there are lines
in the spectrum and that the vibrations of these parts cause the
light. Also the different wave lengths show that these parts have
different masses, or are acted upon by varying attractions while
vibrating, or both.

The study of the spectra of all elements leads us to the same
conclusions : that the atom is not the ultimate particle of matter ;
that the atom is composed of parts, and that the number of these
parts may be determined, more or less accurately, by the number
of different kinds of light emitted ; that is, by the number of lines
in the spectrum.

Upon this as a basis, aided by other important considerations
which will appear as we proceed, we think we have good evidence
to believe that in the same way that molecules are groups of parts
called atoms, so are the atoms groups of smaller parts, which we
may call sub-atoms. The sub-atoms are groups of still smaller
parts, which we may call sub-subatoms ; and by analogy these sub-
subatoms are groups of even more minute parts, and so on until

THE GROUP THEORY OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES. 225

a sub-atom is reached which is capable of no further division, and
we have the ultimate atom.

We know that a few elements, by different groupings of the
atoms and molecules, can form an almost innumerable number of
compounds widely differing in properties. We go a step farther,
and assume that all substances are made up by different groupings
and compounded groupings of the ultimate atoms of one single
absolute element.

The question now naturally arises, is this theory consistent
with observed phenomena? Evidently the limits of this paper will
not permit the discussion of all phenomena. We will consider some
of the most characteristic.

We assume from the spectrum that the oxygen atom is com-
posed of more than forty sub-atoms. The laws of gravitation
alone will explain why these sub-atoms collect to form an approxi-
mately spherical group. The difference in wave length of light
emitted by these sub-atoms is evidence that they differ from each
other, and hence the atom cannot be homogeneous.

Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6

While we would naturally expect that the heavier sub-atoms
would collect at.the center, we also would expect that, in the form-
ation of the atom, centrifugal force, outside attraction or other
causes might modify this.

The chemical behavior of oxygen seems to indicate that the
atom has one side denser than the other, as shown by the shaded
portion of Fig. 3. The center of mass, then, instead of being
at the geometrical center of the atom, is displaced to within the
shaded portion.

Two atoms of oxygen, placed as in Fig. 4, would have a much
stronger attraction for each other than they could have for any
other atom of oxygen, for no other can get its center of mass so
near to be attracted. Hence ordinary free oxygen gas molecules
are made up of pairs of atoms.

A very high temperature is necessary to separate these atoms,
and a very low temperature is necessary in order that the twins
shall have attraction enough to collect and form a liquid.

Similarly the chemical behavior of hydrogen indicates that
its atoms also have a denser portion on one side, and that the free

226 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

gas molecules also exist in the form of twin atoms. We believe
also, from the fewer lines in the spectrum, its smaller atomic weight,
its greater diffusibility, etc., that hydrogen atoms are much smaller
than those of oxygen.

If, at the ordinary temperature, oxygen and hydrogen gases
are mixed, we may see by Fig. 5 that the centers of mass of the
hydrogen molecules cannot get very close to the oxygen molecules ;
no particular attraction takes place, and hence no combination.

If, however, the temperature be raised to a point that breaks
up the twins, the oxygen atoms are separated, the hydrogen twins
can get nearer the centers of mass of the oxygen atoms, and a com-
bination like Fig. 6 results, forming molecules of water. In chang-
ing from the grouping of Fig. 5 to that of Fig. 6 potential energy
is changed to kinetic; that is, heat is given off.

Even at ordinary temperatures, the oxygen twin atoms, in
collisions with other atoms, are continually subjected to strain,
differing with the temperature, the atoms against which they im-
pinge and the position of the atoms when struck; thus, at points
below ignition, some of the twin atoms of oxygen will be broken
up, leaving the single oxygen atoms ready to unite with the atoms
against which they collide, and we say the substance is slowly
oxidized.

The electric spark, in passing through oxygen, breaks up the
twins, leaving separate oxygen atoms; but the passage of the
spark is momentary, and the oxygen atoms, in rushing together
again, in general, from ordinary twins, but some of them strike in
such a way as to form triplets ; that is, ozone. Fig. 7.

A comparatively slight disturbance dislodges one of the oxygen
atoms, and the group of three becomes an ordinary pair and a
single oxygen atom. The single dislodged atom, however, by
reason of its dense part being exposed, is able to attract very
strongly any other atom which may be near, hence the powerful
oxidizing property of ozone.

An atom of oxygen may fasten to the side of a water molecule
to form a molecule of hydrogen dioxide, Fig. 8; but this extra
atom is easily dislodged, leaving a water molecule and a single
oxygen atom; thus, like ozone, forming a powerful oxidizer.

In general any process which leaves single oxygen or hydrogen
atoms leaves them in a position to unite powerfully with others ;
this is the so-called nascent state.

If we attempt to make any other compounds of hydrogen and
oxygen, they must be made by putting the centers of mass of the
added atoms so far away that the attraction is too weak to form a

THE GROUP THEORY OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES. 227

stable group, hence the reason why the compounds of oxygen and
hydrogen are so few in number.

We might assume the possibility of a molecule like Fig. 7, that
is HO, but hydrogen atoms usually occur in pairs, and conditions
which favor any combination would favor the combination of both
atoms of the hydrogen pair. Even if molecules like Fig. 9 were
formed, they would unite in pairs or twins and form H202, or
hydrogen dioxide.

It has been found by experiment that at temperatures between
11460 and 27410 only one-half the usual amount of hydrogen will
unite with oxygen. This seems to show that the dense part of
the oxygen atom is not of uniform density, but rather as shown in
Fig. 10. An atom of hydrogen, then, will be held more strongly at
"a" than at "b." At temperatures between 11460 and 24710 the
collisions are violent enough to dislodge the hydrogen atom cling-
ing at "b," but not the one at "a," leaving the form of the molecule
as HO.

The nitrogen spectrum consists of many fine lines, hence we
conclude that the atom contains many sub-atoms. By the same

Fig. 7 lit)- 8 Fi(f. ft Fig. 10

course of reasoning already presented, we find the center of mass to
be on one side of the atom and that the elementary molecule is
a twin atom. The so-called inertness of nitrogen, that is, the
difficulty found in getting free nitrogen to unite with other ele-
ments, gives us reason to believe that the attraction between the
atoms in the elementary molecule is stronger than in oxygen. It
is more difficult to separate the atoms of nitrogen to get them in a
position to unite with other atoms. The fact that a single atom
of nitrogen unites with three atoms of hydrogen to form ammonia
suggests also this stronger attraction, or at least that the dense por-
tion of the nitrogen atom occupies a larger portion of the side than
in the case of oxygen.

It will also be noticed that it requires a much lower tempera-
ture to liquefy NH3 than H20. This shows that the attraction be-
tween molecules of H20 is stronger than between molecules of
NH3, that at a given temperature the molecular velocity of H20
is less, or that it depends upon both taken together.

A study of the boiling points, freezing points, relative chemical
attractions and atomic weights, together with the forms of crystal-

228 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

lization, hardness, ductility, etc., will give data from which to
determine, approximately, at least, the positions of the centers of
mass of the different molecules and atoms.

In the case of nitrous oxide, Fig. n, we have a group of three
atoms. When the temperature reaches a certain point the group
is broken up, the two nitrogen atoms unite to form a pair, leaving
the oxygen atom in the single form ready to unite with other atoms ;
that is, nitrous oxide acts as a powerful oxidizer after the tem-
perature has reached a certain point.

Fig. 12 shows a molecule of nitric oxide. The molecule of
N20 is more easily decomposed than NO, because the two atoms
of nitrogen in N20 tend to form a twin atom or elementary mole-
cule. This aid to an outside force is not present in the molecule of
NO. However, at a very high temperature the NO is decomposed,
leaving the oxygen free, and it is then a supporter of combustion.

Let us now pass to chlorine. When a free gas, this also exists
as twin atoms, showing the center of mass of the atom to be
nearer one side.

It would seem that the dense portion of the atom is in a
comparatively small spot, since but one atom of hydrogen is held,
as in hydrochloric acid. The small attraction of the chlorine atoms
for each other is shown by the comparative ease by which the
elementary molecules are broken up, leaving the chlorine atoms in
a position to be very active in combining with other atoms.

Activity in combination, however, is not necessarily the same
as power of combination. Two atoms may readily unite, and yet
not powerfully unite.

Since light is produced by the vibration of the sub-atoms, con-
versely, light will cause the sub-atoms to vibrate, the atoms will
expand, the centers of mass of the atoms will move farther apart,
the attraction between them will become less and the elementary
molecules may be more easily broken up. Hence, light facilitates
combination of chlorine with other atoms. In a similar way light,
by expansion of the atoms, changes the equilibrium and combina-
tions in photographic processes.

Of course light would tend to produce the same effect in a
great many substances, but the laws of sympathetic action, together

THE GROUP THEORY OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES. 229

with other forces, would, in general, cause this effect to be un-
noticeable.

Bromine, iodine and fluorine resemble chlorine, so we need not
stop with them here except, perhaps, to consider the remarkable
fact that fluorine will not, as far as known, combine with oxygen.
If it is impossible to form compounds of oxygen and fluorine, it
may mean nothing more than that the oxygen atoms have a
stronger attraction for each other than they do for the fluorine.
That is, if such a combination were conceived, it would be broken
up by the oxygen atoms uniting to form twins or free oxygen
molecules.

Carbon seems to have four dense parts in its atom. If we
imagine surfaces "ab" and "cd" passed through the atom, we may
consider each of the four portions to have a center of mass of its
own. Four hydrogen atoms then would nsturally cling, as shown
by Fig. 13, representing CH4.

Some other representative compounds are as shown below :

CHi

Fir/. 11 CO„

It would seem reasonable to suppose that the four dense por-
tions of the carbon atom would not be exactly the same ; that is, their
attractive powers would be different. The compound CH2 would
tend to show that the attraction is stronger upon two sides, forming
the group of Fig. 15. The compound CO tends to show the same
thing. One oxygen atom taking the place of the two hydrogen
atoms of CH2.

The compounds CH2 and CO would naturally be formed when
there was a scarcity of hydrogen or oxygen, the stronger sides
of the carbon taking up all of the atoms of hydrogen or oxygen.

Instead of forming twin atoms, as do oxygen, hydrogen, etc.,
free carbon tends to collect indefinitely, since there is a strong
attraction on four sides. It therefore tends to form a solid which
requires an extreme high temperature to vaporize. The two forms
of crystals show two different arrangements of the atoms, the octa-
hedral or diamond, shown in section by Fig. 16, and the hexagonal
or graphite, as shown in section by Fig. 17. The diamond having
the dense portions in closer proximity to each other tends to give a
stronger attraction, hence the greater hardness.

230 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Amorphous carbon is quite possibly a mass of extremely small
crystals of graphite.

The ability to attract in four directions makes carbon a power-
ful link in binding together other atoms. It connects the atoms
of soft iron to make hard steel, while most of the molecules in the
organic world would fall to pieces were it not for the powerful
cementing influence of the inclosed carbon.

The spectrum of sulphur leads to the conclusion that its atom
has a great many sub-atoms, and a study of its properties leads
us to believe that the atom has two dense parts or centers of attrac-
tion at about 900 from each other. The sulphur naturally existing
in clusters of six atoms, as would be represented by Fig. 18, if we
conceive an atom in the center front and another in the center back.
Collections of these clusters would make octahedra, the natural
form of sulphur crystals. When the sulphur is heated the clusters
of six move more freely amongst each other ; the sulphur melts.

Fig. 10 Fig. 17

At a higher temperature two of the atoms of the cluster of six
are dislodged, leaving the cluster of four as shown by Fig. 18.
The atoms disengaged uniting to form other clusters of four. The
cluster of four, however, still retains considerable attraction in two
directions, those from which the two atoms were dislodged, and by
continually clinging to its neighbors (though but weakly) is re-
tarded in its motions ; the liquid sulphur becomes viscous. At a
higher temperature, however, this tendency is overcome and it be-
comes liquid again.

Suddenly cooling the viscous sulphur will increase the side
attraction, without giving time to arrange in crystals, by bringing
the clusters nearer together, hence the rubber-like mass.

Clusters of four will evidently form different crystals than
clusters of six ; they form rhombic or monoclinic crystals, which,
however, gradually revert to the natural or cluster of six form.
This change, as we might expect, is facilitated by heat or vibra-
tion.

In general, the crystal forms will aid us greatly in locating
the relative positions of the dense portions of the atoms. The
cleavage and fracture will also be important helps.

If it is true that the atoms are made up of sub-atoms, it seems

THE GROUP THEORY OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES. 231

quite within the limits of possibility to find some way to break them
up and make new elements of the fragments. We may even ad-
vance to the point where we can make a given element out of other
elements as we now make a given compound out of other com-
pounds. When this day arrives the old dream of the alchemists
may find its realization ; we may be able to make gold.

It has been found that the spectrum of sulphur, as well as
many other elements, differs at different temperatures.

Light is caused by the vibrations of the sub-atoms and possibly
some of the smaller groups of sub-atoms. As the mechanical col-
lisions set the molecules of a body vibrating, so will the collisions
of the molecules set the atoms vibrating, and, in the same way,
the collisions ot the atoms will set the sub-atoms vibrating and
produce light.

In the same way that the vibration of the molecules expands
a body, so will the vibrations of the atoms expand the molecule,
and the vibrations of the sub-atoms expand the atom. But this dis-
turbance among the sub-atoms very likely would modify the group-

Fiff. IS Fig. 10

ing and certainly modify the attractive force among the sub-atoms,
and change the frequency of the vibrations, which would mean a
change in the spectrum.

Suppose "a" and "b," Fig. 19, be two sub-atoms of exactly
the same mass, but "a" is at surface of atom and "b" in the interior,
"a' and "b" would have different vibration frequency, because
they are acted on by different attraction, analogous to pendulums
on and below surface of the earth.

If the light waves caused by the vibrations of the internal sub-
atoms can get out of the atom, we would have all wave lengths
corresponding to these different attractions from circumference to
center ; and, if the sub-atoms were numerous, a band spectrum, even
though the sub-atoms were all of the same size. With sub-atoms
of different mass, the band spectrum would vary in density.

On the other hand, if the atom be opaque, only the surface sub-
atoms can send out light and we have a different wave length for
each different kind of sub-atom ; that is, we have a line spectrum.

Evidently, an atom partially opaque would have a combination
of line and band spectrum.

232 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

That some lines are brighter than others may be explained by
saying- there are more sub-atoms of that particular kind than others,
and hence give more light; or that some sub-atoms are near the
surface of the atom, and hence give more light than those partly
covered up.

Even the surface sub-atoms of the atoms would be affected by
the proximity of other atoms ; and a change in the temperature,
bringing about a change in the position of the atoms, would affect
the vibration number of the sub-atoms, and hence a change in the
spectrum.

An element in the gaseous form giving a line spectrum, because
the vibrations of the sub-atoms are nearly unaffected by the
proximity of other atoms, will give a continuous spectrum in the
liquid or solid form, because, as we go from the surface of the
liquid or solid downward, the sub-atoms are gradually more and
more affected, and have their wave lengths gradually changed,
hence producing all the wave lengths between certain limits.

In vibrating, a body sets up sound waves in the air, a substance
whose molecules are of similar magnitude to the molecules of the
vibrating body. Analogously, the sub-atoms, in vibrating, set up
light waves in the ether, a substance whose particles are of the
same or similar magnitude as the particles of the vibrating sub-
atom ; that is, the ether is a gas-like substance whose particles are
sub-subatoms.

Furthermore, analogy and a study of phenomena lead us to
believe that there is another gas-like substance, occupying a posi-
tion between the ordinary gases and the ether, a gas-like substance
whose particles are sub-atoms. We may call this a sub-gas.

In general, then, the smallest particles of ordinary gases are
composed of pairs or groups of atoms. The smallest particles of a
sub-gas are pairs or groups of sub-atoms, and the smallest particles
of the ether are pairs or groups of sub-subatoms.

Furthermore, since we have a variety of different gases, so we
may have a variety of different sub-gases, a variety of different
ethers, and even a variety of different sub-ethers, etc.

Here are substances fine and delicate enough for the enthusiast
to build up the principle of life existing in germs, to fashion the
intellect, memory, yes, even to construct the human soul.

Bodies vibrating in ordinary gases produce sound waves, sub-
atoms vibrating in the ether produce light waves. Analogously
we might expect that atoms or clusters of atoms vibrating in the
sub-gas would produce a set of waves which can not be classed
among sound or light waves.

THE GROUP THEORY OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES. 233

When a body is heated, its molecules are caused to vibrate, and
at the same time it gives off what is termed radiant heat. Is it
possible that this radiant heat consists of waves in the sub-gas
instead of (what is generally assumed) in the ether? We have
thus far failed to recognize a single fact which would show that
radiant heat could not be a wave motion in a sub-gas as well as
in the ether. It would seem that, if the velocity of radiant heat, or
even perhaps the wave length, could be determined independently
of any connection with light, this doubt could be cleared up. If
radiant heat were a wave motion in a sub-gas, its wave length
would be much greater and its velocity much less than those of
light.

Phenomena seem to show that electricity is a motion in the
sub-gas, while magnetism is a motion in the ether. A discussion
of this, however, does not properly belong to this paper, which dis-
cusses the constitution and properties of matter, rather than the
motions of matter. The motions of matter are, however, so in-
timately connected with the properties and constitution, that it is
impossible to separate them entirely.

Mechanical collisions form molecular vibrations or heat ; molec-
ular collisions, or heat, produce vibrations of the sub-atoms, or
light. Mechanical energy can be changed to heat and vice versa.
Molecular energy, heat, can be changed to light and vice versa.

Some substances require less mechanical energy than others to
raise the molecular vibration sufficiently to send out radiant heat.
Similarly some substances require less molecular energy, heat, to
raise the vibration of the sub-atoms sufficiently to send out light.
As substances have different "specific heats," so do they have dif-
ferent "specific lights." Phosphorus is a substance of low "spe-
cific light ;" a comparatively low temperature or slight collision of
the molecules causes the sub-atoms to vibrate enough to send out
light.

When light rays fall upon a substance the light vibrations set
the sub-atoms vibrating, especially if the sub-atoms naturally send
out that same kind of light. By reason of inertia, these sub-atoms
continue to vibrate for a short time, even after the exciting rays
are cut off, and thus give out or glow, as shown in the phenomena
of phosphorescence.

Calorescence, the changing of heat rays to light rays, would
be a change of energy form, analogous to change of sound to heat,
when sound waves are absorbed by a body. The converse, the
change of light to heat, would be analogous to the change of heat
to sound, as is illustrated by numerous examples.

234 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Whether there are any motions in the sub-ether which man is
able to detect is a question. Possibly, however, if we can accept
as a fact what thousands have asserted, and what thousands and
millions believe, that there is a mysterious connection between mind
and mind, this connection may be through the sub-ether.

If the molecules of a substance have the centers of mass close
together, as in Fig. 20, they attract each other strongly, the sub-
stance is hard ; but if a force sufficiently strong acts, a small
actual motion in almost any direction becomes a large relative
motion, the molecules are permanently torn apart, there is
no appreciable "give" to the substance, we say it is brittle. Carbon
affords a good example of this. If, on the other hand, the center
of mass is at or near the geometrical center, Fig. 21, a much smaller
force will cause a much larger actual motion without affecting
the relative distance so much and without affecting the actual at-
traction very much. The body is not ruptured. The less force
shows the body to be soft. The molecules will roll around each
other, there being about as much attraction in one position as in
another ; the substance is ductile or malleable.

Fuj. -JO Fir/. 21

One body may be harder than another, showing a greater
attraction between the molecules, and still be found by experiment
to be less tenacious than a softer body which has less molecular
attraction.

This is due simply to the fact that the molecules of the harder
body have but little "give" to them. A stress in any direction
will cause a great strain on some molecules and none on others ;
these molecules pull apart, throwing the stress upon others ; these
give way, then others, and so on until the rupture is complete. It
is like breaking a great cable one strand at a time. In the softer
body, however, the molecules "give," so before any rupture takes
place the whole cross-section of the body is resisting the stress. It
is practically stronger than the first body, notwithstanding that its
molecular attraction is less.

It would seem that the rigidity of solids furnishes almost posi-
tive proof that their molecules are not only actually, but relatively
close together, that at absolute zero the molecules and atoms are as
much in contact as are the stones in a stone pile. At any other
temperature the relative distance apart is but small, and can be cal-

THE GROUP THEORY OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES. 235

dilated from the amount of expansion from the absolute zero
to the given temperature. For example, if a solid increases its
length 0.25 per cent, when heated from absolute zero to any given
temperature, the distance between the centers of the molecules will
also increase 0.25 per cent. Also since the change from a solid to
a liquid is usually accompanied by but a slight change in volume,
the liquid molecules and atoms are also very nearly in contact.
Hence the relative densities of the molecules and atoms of liquids
and solids are approximately the same as the relative densities
of the liquids and solids themselves.

We may use this principle to determine the approximate sizes
of different molecules. For example, the molecular weight of sul-
phuric acid is about 98, about 5^2 times that of water. That is,
a molecule of sulphuric acid has about 5^2 times the mass of a
molecule of water. If the molecules of sulphuric acid were of the
same size as those of water, the density would be about 5^ ; but
being only 1.8 about, or about 1-3 as much, it means that a molecule
of sulphuric acid has about three times the volume of a molecule
of water.

rirj. 22

If a series of pendulums, as shown in Fig. 22, were made of
ivory or glass balls, they could be made to vibrate at a certain
amplitude amongst each other with much less expenditure of
energy than if the balls were made of lead ; the leaden balls would
absorb much more energy in themselves. Different substances are
made up of different atoms and molecules. Naturally some of the
atoms and molecules are more elastic than others and require less
energy to raise their temperature ; they are said to have a low spe-
cific heat.

We find the specific heat of hydrogen to be 3.409, and that of
oxygen 0.2175. Approximately (1), Sp. Ht. of O X Mol. Wt. =
Sp. Ht. of H X Mol. Wt.

One gram of H requires about 16 times as much energy to
raise it one degree as one gram of O. Therefore one volume of
H requires about the same energy to raise it one degree as one
volume of O. This means that it requires about the same energy
to raise one molecule of H one degree as one molecule of O.

But equation (1), given above, is only approximately correct.
If the specific heat of O were 0.2129, instead of 0.2175, tne equa-
tion would be exactly correct ; that is, the actual specific heat of O
[23]

226 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

is a little greater than the theory of equation ( i ) ; that is, the mole-
cule of O requires a little more energy to raise it one degree than the
molecule of H. This extra energy required is due to the energy
absorbed by the internal parts of the O molecules. Collisions of
the molecules set the atoms and sub- atoms vibrating, thus taking
up some of the energy; but the O molecule, being more complex
than the H molecule, absorbs more energy.

Take a molecule of steam, instead of oxygen, in equation (i).
If the specific heat of steam were 0.378 instead of 0.48, equation
( 1 ) would be true ; that is, more heat energy is required to raise one
molecule of steam one degree than a molecule of hydrogen, and
not only more, but relatively more than to raise a molecule of
oxygen one degree. Much more energy is absorbed by the internal
parts of the steam molecule than by the H or O. It is more com-
plex.

Water has about twice the specific heat of steam. The mole-
cules are closer together, the collisions are more frequent, the
internal disturbance is greater, and hence the greater amount of
energy absorbed by the atoms and sub-atoms.

If we use equation (1) to compare water with common salt,
the calculated specific heat of the NaCl is 0.307, but the real Sp. Ht.
is 0.219, hence the amount of energy to raise one molecule of NaCl
one degree is less than that of water. The NaCl is less complex.
If we compare water with potassium sulphate, the calculated
specific heat of the K2S04 is 0.103, while the real Sp. Ht. is 0.196;
that is, the molecule is so complex that it requires more energy to
raise one molecule of K2S04 one degree than one molecule of H20.
More energy is absorbed in the internal groups.

If we compare lead and tin, the calculated Sp. Ht. is 0.0552,
the real Sp. Ht. 0.0548; that is, each molecule requires about the
same energy to raise it one degree, about the same amount of energy
is absorbed by the internal parts of each molecule. This same
agreement holds for all the metals as well as chlorine, bromine,
iodine, selenium, tellurium and arsenic. If we compare hydrogen
and lead, using a molecule of H and an atom of Pb the calculated
Sp. Ht. of the Pb is 0.0330, the real Sp. Ht. is 0.0315, showing
that the energy required to raise a molecule of H and an atom of
Pb is about the same.

We interpret this to mean, in general, that all kinds of mole-
cule require the same energy to raise them one degree (remem-
bering that a molecule is sometimes composed of but one atom),
except for the part of the energy which is absorbed by the internal
groups of the molecule.

THE GROUP THEORY OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES. 237

But when molecules are raised one degree it means that they
are capable of imparting a certain additional energy to a ther-
mometer; so when we say that all molecules, except as above men-
tioned, require the same energy to raise them one degree, we are
simply saying that the same energy given to all kinds of molecules
will enable them to give the same additional amount to a ther-
mometer ; that is, in other words, that the same energy given to all
kinds of molecules will increase their energy the same amount.
This is, of course, self-evident, and the whole investigation shows
that part of the heat energy is absorbed in the internal groups of the
molecule, and that atomic heat is no special property, but a natural
consequence following the different molecular weights.

There seems to be little doubt that a body is raised in tem-
perature when the kinetic energy of its molecules is increased. Po-
tential energy has nothing to do with temperature. When water
is turned to steam the molecules move farther apart, the potential
energy is increased at the expense of the kinetic energy, and is
apparently losing heat; this, together with the energy taken up in
the interior groups of the molecules themselves, accounts for the
latent heat of steam.

In the same way that vibratory motion can be transmitted
through a row of elastic balls more easily than through inelastic
ones; so can heat be conducted through a substance composed of
elastic molecules and atoms more easily than through inelastic
ones. This would tend to show that bodies with low specific heat
would be good conductors ; but this conductivity is modified by
the attractive forces which may prevent the molecules from readily
moving to communicate the heat motion to its neighbors.

We know that light passes through certain bodies which we
call transparent. Either the light passes as ether waves between
the atoms like water waves between rushes or else the vibrations
pass through the substance itself like sound passes through a wall.
A thin layer of ordinary carbon is perfectly opaque, while a thick
and much denser layer of diamond is transparent. Facts like this
seem to point to the latter explanation. The transparency of a
body, then, will depend upon the elasticitv, continuity and freedom
of motion of the sub-atoms.

In the same way that mechanical vibration will be absorbed by
a non-continuous mass, like sand, or inelastic matter, like lead, so
will light vibrations be absorbed by inelastic and non-continuous
sub-atoms.

The irregular expansion of water may be explained as follows :

When heated from the ordinary temperature, water gradually
expands, but the rate of expansion gradually increases as the tern-

238 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

perature rises. The high specific heat of water shows that the
molecules are inelastic. A great deal of energy is absorbed by
the molecules themselves, but this absorption of energy causes
a vibration of the parts within the molecule, and the molecule
itself expands. This gradual increase in the size of the molecules,
added to the regular expansion, causes the increase in the rate of
real expansion. When water cools, it contracts to 4° C, then ex-
pands slightly, then greatly a.z it freezes. Water crystallizes in
hexagonal plate-like forms; that is, when the vibration of
the water molecules becomes slow enough, gravitation draws
them together, forming hexagonal clusters of six, Fig. 23. In this
form the centers of mass are as near as possible. This forms the
elementary crystal, and, by collections of these, all vhe varied forms
shown by snowflakes are built up.

Fig. 23

A few of these clusters begin to form at 4°, and this arrange-
ment take up more room. The water expands. When all form
hexagonal clusters, the water becomes ice and the expansion is
considerable.

The six water molecules in the cluster are held together as in
a vise. The relative vibration is largely stopped, and this kinetic
energy is given to outside bodies. The cluster of six then acts as a
molecule. When ice again melts, it naturally requires considerable
energy to again break up these clusters, hence the apparent disap-
pearance of heat. This hexagonal molecule of water plays an im-
portant part in the formation of many crystals, as water of crystal-
lization. The occurrence of 6H20, I2H20 24H20, etc., suggests
this. Other groups seem to be formed by replacing one or more
of the water molecules in the hexagonal molecule by another atom
or molecule ; for example, the compound, CI + 5H20.

ENGINEERING EXPLORATIONS IN MONTANA. 239

ENGINEERING EXPLORATIONS IN MONTANA AND
ELSEWHERE IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS.

Annual Address of Francis W. Blackford, Retiring President Montana
Society of Engineers.

[Read before the Society, January 12, 1901.*]

I had read with interest the journals of most of the expedi-
tions mentioned in this paper before I had ever set foot west of the
Mississippi River or thought of making my home in Montana, but
later professional work took me over a large extent of the coun-
try traversed by them, and I again read the journals with increased
interest, and from my acquaintance with the country was enabled
to locate the various routes of travel in accordance with present
geographical terms. Others might have the same interest in such
things, but not the time or opportunity to gratify it. I therefore
selected this as my subject.

These explorers pointed out the way and stimulated immigra-
tion and permanent settlement, which made possible the construc-
tion of the Union and Northern Pacific Railways, great under-
takings and great engineering work in any age. The period of
exploration covered pretty well the first three-quarters of the cen-
tury and I deem it not improper to review them now at its close.

Such a review would logically begin with the expedition of
Lewis and Clarke, which started from a point on the Missouri
River, near the present site of Kansas City, in the spring of 1804.

Lewis and Clarke were both captains in the United States
Army, and the expedition was organized and equipped by the
authority of the Government to explore a part of the then recent
Louisiana purchase. The instructions of the commanders were,
briefly, to follow the Missouri River to its head, thence cross to the
head waters of the Columbia and follow it to its mouth, and come
back overland if practicable. In pursuance of these instructions this
expedition traveled by a keel-boat and canoes to a point near the
present site of Bismarck and went into winter quarters, where they
spent the winter of 1804 and 1805. As soon as the river was free
from ice in the spring they resumed their journey and reached the
Great Falls of the Missouri, the first interruption to traffic, in the
month of June, 1805. After a laborious portage of their goods, they
again embarked in canoes made above the falls and continued up
the Missouri to the Three Forks thereof, thence by the Jefferson
to the confluence of the Big Hole and Beaverhead, thence by the

*Manuscript received March 8, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

240 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Beaverhead to the Horse Prairie, thence by said creek until it be-
came too shallow for their boat. Here they made a cache and
proceeded by pack train, composed of horses purchased from the
Indians, and under the direction of Indian guides, over Horse
Prairie and across the main range of the Rocky Mountains to a
tributary of the Salmon, thence down said stream to a point near
the present site of Gibbonsville, thence almost due north across a
high spur of the main range to Ross Hole, in the Bitter Root Valley,
thence down the Bitter Root Valley to a point some six miles south
of the present site of Missoula, thence westward by what was
known as the North Nez Perce Trail, up the Lolo 10 the summit of
the Bitter Root Mountains, down on to the waters of the Clear
Water, and up again to the higher ground lying between the Clear
Water and Clark's Fork of the Columbia, upon which ridge and its
spur the trail lay for many miles, finally taking them to the Clear
Water near its confluence with the Snake, at which point they
made boats and reached the mouth of the Columbia in December
of 1805.

Returning, the expedition traveled by the same route as far as
the mouth of the Lolo, near Missoula, where a separation took
place. Captain Clarke and part of the party went up the Bitter
Root Valley to Ross Hole, thence across what is now known as
Gibbons Pass to the Big Hole Basin, thence south to Horse Prairie
and the cache made the year previous. They then proceeded down
the valley of the Beaver Head and the Jefferson to the Three Forks
of the Missouri, where the party again divided, a part joining Cap-
tain Lewis with the boats at the Great Falls of the Missouri, while
Captain Clarke proceeded up the Gallatin and its tributaries, pass-
ing near the present site of Bozeman to Bozeman Pass of the Belt
Mountains, and to the Yellowstone River near to where Livingstone
now stands. There they made boats and proceeded down the Yel-
lowstone to its mouth, near which, in August, 1806, they met Cap-
tain Lewis, who had left the mouth of Lolo at the same time and
traveled as follows : Down the Bitter Root to the Hell Gate, up that
stream to the mouth of the Big Blackfoot, thence up the Big
Blackfoot to its head, crossing the main range of the Rocky Moun-
tains at what is now known as Lewis and Clarke Pass, thence
to the Great Falls of the Missouri, where they embarked and
proceeded down the Missouri to the mouth of the Yellowstone,
near which they met Captain Clarke.

In the year 1806 Lieutenant Pike, of the United States Army,
ascended the Arkansaw River to a point near its source and re-
turned via the South Platte, discovering, upon his way, the peak

ENGINEERING EXPLORATIONS IN MONTANA. 241

which now bears his name and which has always been a prominent
landmark for a large section of the- State of Colorado. The honor
of first ascending this peak, however, belongs to Dr. James, of
Major Long's expedition. This expedition approached the moun-
tain via the South Branch of the Platte in the year 1820. The
high peak lying some sixty miles northwest of Denver gave this
expedition the first glimpse of the Rocky Mountains, and has since
been known as Long's Peak. Major Long gave the name of
James Peak to the mountain first seen by Lieutenant Pike. Not-
withstanding this, the name of Pike has stuck to the peak first seen
and reported by him, and the name of James has been given to the
peak lying immediately south and about ten miles distant from
Long's Peak. I have stood upon the summit of the last-named
peak, which is somewhat lower than either Pike's or Long's Peak,
both of which are visible from its summit.

The view from this point is very impressive, and, in addition to
its grandeur, gives one an excellent knowledge of the geography
of the surrounding region.

Major Long's party did not penetrate the mountains very far,
but confined their explorations to the district lying east thereof.
The next expedition of importance was that of Captain Bonneville.
This was semi-official in its character, and more a fur-trading than
an exploring expedition. Captain Bonneville was an officer in the
United States Army and had served on the frontier ; being desirous
of extending his knowledge of the country lying to the westward,
he obtained from the Secretary of War a leave of absence with the
understanding that upon his return to the army he was to report
the result of his travels and explorations to the War Depart-
ment. He then associated himself with some capitalists who fur-
nished the means to outfit a trading and trapping expedition.
The outfit consisted of about one hundred men with wagons and
pack animals. It started from the frontier in the spring of 1832
and traveled westerly to the North Platte, thence by the North
Platte to the Sweetwater, thence by the Sweetwater to South
Pass, thence to Green River, where a cache was made, which
remained the headquarters of the expedition for the next three
years. Captain Bonneville was the first to cross the Rocky Moun-
tains with wagons.

He then went up Green River and on to the Snake River at
what was then known as Pierre's Hole, a valley lying immediately
west of the Three Tetons, this was a general rendezvous for the
trappers of the American and Rocky Mountain Fur Company.
The country, even at that early period, was full of trappers, who

.242 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

went in every direction from this point in search of fruitful fields
for their occupation.

Captain Bonneville's expedition did not prove a financial suc-
cess, but, during his three years' sojourn in the mountains, he
traveled extensively and increased the knowledge of the geography
of this section of the country, which was then very meager. He
made two trips from the Green River around the eastern slope of
the Wind River Mountain to the Yellowstone; spent one winter
upon the head waters of the Salmon, immediately west of Horse
Prairie; traveled upon the Beaver Head and its tributaries, and
spent a part of one winter near Fort Hall, a trading post situated
on the Snake River, near the mouth of the Portneuf.

In the year 1834 he made two trips down the valley of the
Snake River, up the Malheur via Grand Rond Valley, across the
Blue Mountains and down the John Day River to Walla Walla,
returning by practically the same route. In traveling from Fort
Hall to Green River he sometimes went by the way of Pierre's and
Jackson's Hole, and sometimes by the Portneuf or Blackfoot and
Bear River to Sublett's Pass and Ham's Fork, following very
nearly the route afterward taken by the Oregon Short Line Rail-
way.

Finding a herd of buffalo imprisoned by the snow in the
valley of Bear River in the winter of 1834 and 1835, tne expedition,
or what was then left of it, camped with the buffalo until spring, it
is needless to say to the discomfiture of the latter. They then pro-
ceeded eastward via the South Pass and Platte River, reaching the
settlements in August, 1835.

In July, 1833, a detachment from this expedition traveled down
Bear River to the Great Salt Lake and made an exploration partly
around its southern end. They then struck across the desert lying
to the westward, and after various adventures and extreme hard-
ships crossed the Sierra Nevada Mountains to the valleys of Cali-
fornia.

Returning, they crossed the mountains further south, "prob-
ably by the Tehachapi Pass, thence to the southern end of Salt
Lake and via the Bear River to the rendezvous on Green River.

It was the intention of Captain Bonneville to have this party
thoroughly explore the Great Salt Lake, of which little was then
known. The leader and his men proved unreliable, however, and
wasted their stores and means in the trip to California, and added
but little to the knowledge either of the extent of the lake or of the
country thereabout.

This lake was called Lake Bonneville by Washington Irving
in his "Astoria," "but it was well known before Captain Bonne-

ENGINEERING EXPLORATIONS IN -MONTANA. 243

ville visited the country, having been seen and reported by James
Bridger, a trapper, in 1825. It may have been discovered by the
Spaniards at an earlier period, but their information concerning
it was very vague and uncertain.

The next exploration, in the order of occurrence, was that of
Lieutenant John C. Fremont, who made three expeditions to and
beyond the Rocky Mountains, beginning in 1842 and ending in
1846.

Fremont was eminently fitted for such work, having had sev-
eral years' practical experience as a civil engineer engaged in
railroad surveying and kindred work, notably a reconnaissance for
a railway from Charleston, S. C, to Cincinnati, over a very broken
and mountainous country. He was also an accomplished mathema-
tician, having been instructor in the United States Navy. At the
time of his appointment as chief of this exploring party, he was an
assistant engineer in the engineering department of the army.

During all of his expeditions he was supplied with instru-
ments for obtaining temperature, latitude, longitude and altitude,
and such determinations were frequently made, except at rare in-
tervals when his instruments were broken or out of repair.

His descriptions of the country traversed are so full and plain
that his route can be easily followed, by means of these alone, by
any one who is at all familiar with the topography of the country.
I have surveyed railway lines over more than a thousand miles
of his trail, and have traveled by wagon and in other ways over
other parts of it, and can, therefore, speak from personal observa-
tion.

The object of these expeditions was mainly to increase the
geographical knowledge of the country for the aid and encourage-
ment of immigration to Oregon and the Northwest.

The first expedition left the Missouri River, near the mouth
of the Kansas, in June, 1842, traveled northwesterly, thence via
the Main Platte and its South Fork, reaching the base of the
mountains just east of Long's Peak, near St. Vrain's Fort. Thence
the route lay along the eastern base of the mountains to the
North Platte River, thence via the Platte and Sweetwater to
South Pass. The latter he described as being so extremely easy of
access that it was only by the most careful observation that the
highest point could be discerned.

From South Pass the party traveled toward the Wind River
Mountains, and, after a number of days of arduous labor, Lieu-
tenant Fremont and several of the party succeeded, on the 25th
of August, in reaching the summit of the highest peak of the range,

244 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

and planted thereon the American flag. This peak has since born
his name, and it was thought then to be the highest peak in the
Rocky Mountains.

The party then retraced their steps as far as Fort Laramie,
and from there followed down the Platte to its mouth. Then, by
boats built for the purpose, they descended the river to St. Louis,
where they arrived on the 17th day of October, 1842.

Fremont's second expedition was much more extensive than
the first, and the results were of greater geographic value. His
instructions were to connect his reconnaissance of 1842 with the
surveys of Captain Wilkes, of the United States Navy, on the coast
of the Pacific Ocean, near the mouth of the Columbia River.

This expedition left the mouth of the Kansas on the last of
May, 1843, traveled nearly westward to St. Vrain's Fort, at the
base of the mountain, thence southward to Pueblo, up the Arkan-
saw about seventy-five miles, across to the South Platte in South
Park, thence to St. Vrain's Fort, makinsr a reconnaissance com-
pletely around Pike's Peak, and including much of the head waters
of the Arkansaw and the South Platte.

Leaving St. Vrain's Fort on July 26, they passed up the Cache
La Poudre to the tributaries of the Laramie River, thence along
the eastern slope of the Medicine Bow Mountains, over the Laramie
Plains, striking the Sweetwater a short distance east of South
Pass, thence by the Emigrant Road to Green River, at a point
about twenty miles north of the present crossing of the Union
Pacific Railway.

From here they traveled westward to Ham's Fork, up that
stream to the dividing ridge between the waters of the Colorado
and those of the Great Basin, crossing the same very near, if not at,
Sublett's Pass, now occupied by the Oregon Short Line Railway,
thence down a tributary to Bear River, which stream they fol-
lowed to Soda Springs, thence by the Portneuf to Fort Hall in the
Snake River Valley. From near Green River to Fort Hall the
route followed very closely that taken forty years later by the Ore-
gon Short Line.

While the main party was journeying down the Portneuf,
Lieutenant Fremont and a few men traveled from Soda Springs
down the Bear River to the Great Salt Lake, and explored its
eastern shores as far as the mouth of Weber River. He visited
one of the islands, from which he obtained a good idea of the
extent of the lake.

He then traveled northward to Fort Hall, following up the
Malad and down Bannock Creek instead of the route afterward

ENGINEERING EXPLORATIONS IN MONTANA. 245

followed by the Utah and Northern Railway, which lies a little
to the eastward.

His route then lay down the valley of Snake River to Burnt
Fork, thence up that stream and on to the Powder River, pass-
ing near the site of Baker City, thence via the Grand Rond Valley,
across the Blue Mountains to the Columbia River, near Fort
Walla Walla.

There were a few white inhabitants engaged in the fur trade
along the route of travel from Fort Hall to this point, notably at
the mouth of the Boise and in the Grand Rond Valley. There
were also emigrants along the way bound for the valley of the
Willamette.

Leaving the main party at the Dalles of the Columbia, Lieu-
tenant Fremont proceeded to Fort Van Couver, near the mouth of
the Willamette, where he laid in a supply of provisions for his con-
templated explorations southward from the Dalles. He had thus
fulfilled his mission and connected his survey with that of Captain
Wilkes.

Lieutenant Fremont reports that Mount Rainier and Mount
St. Helen were then in action, the latter having scattered ashes
over a large extent of country the year previous.

The extent of the Great Basin lying between the Wasatch and
Sierra Nevada Mountains was not then known. It was thought
that a part of that section drained into the Gulf of California
and a part into the Bay of San Francisco by the Rio Buenaventura,
which had a conspicuous place upon the maps of the period. It
was supposed to have its source in the Rocky Mountains and to
break through the Sierra Nevadas. To extend the geographical
knowledge of this territory was, therefore, the object of this part
of the expedition.

The country previously traveled was well known to trappers
and traders, and no difficulty was experienced in procuring guides
to conduct the party over well-known and, in most instances, well-
worn trails or roads The party, which consisted of twenty-five
men, was now confronted with a very different undertaking, — viz,
the entrance into an unknown country at the beginning of winter,
with its attendant hardships and perils. Notwithstanding these
conditions, the party left the Dalles in good spirits on the 25th of
November, and traveled southward along the east base of the Sierra
Nevadas, over a country more or less broken by spurs from the
mountains and interspersed with lakes and plains. They suffered
considerable hardships from hunger and fatigue occasioned by the
scarcity of game and the inclement weather.

246 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

They finally reached a point near Lake Tahoe, which they
knew from the latitude was nearly as far south as San Francisco
Bay. Not having found a river draining westward the chief sur-
mised that the country did not drain into the Pacific Ocean. He
then decided to make an effort to cross the Sierra Nevada Moun-
tains to the valleys of California, which his principal guide, Kit
Carson, had visited some fifteen years before. This was a haz-
ardous undertaking in the month of February, but the supplies were
almost exhausted, and but little hope was entertained of being able
to live on the country where they were until spring. The passage
of the mountains was therefore undertaken, and made between the
3d and 20th of February, at a point about forty miles south of the
pass subsequently used by the Central Pacific Railway. The snow
in the mountains was very deep, and it was necessary to beat down
a trail with malls to enable the animals to cross at all. After
passing the summit they traveled down the middle fork of the
American River, and reached Sutter Fort and settlement on the
6th of March, 1844 This fort was about eight miles from the site
of the city of Sacramento.

The expedition then proceeded southward through the valley
of the San Joaquin, and crossed the mountain at the Tehachapi
Pass, thence by the Spanish trail easterly and northeasterly across
a barren country to Utah Lake, thence around the southern end
of the Uinta Mountains, crossing the Green River and reaching the
Platte not far south of the point afterward crossed by the Union
Pacific Railway. Thence they traveled up the Platte and through
North Park, crossing back to the Pacific slope by what is now
known as Arrapahoe Pass, thence through Middle Park and up
the Blue River to its source at the Middle Fork, over into South
Park, thence to the Arkansaw near Pueblo, where they arrived on
the 29th of June. Traveling eastward, they reached their starting
point, the mouth of the Kansas, July 31, 1844, having made the
entire circuit in almost exactly fourteen months. The party took
with them carts as far as the Dalles of the Columbia and a twelve-
pound mountain howitzer to a point some distance north of where
they crossed the Sierra Nevada, where the howitzer was abandoned
because of the difficulty of hauling it over a rugged country devoid
of trail and covered with snow.

Considering the character of the country traversed, some of
which was entirely unknown, and the difficulties which beset the
traveler in a land far from supplies and full of Indians more or
less unfriendly, if not actually hostile, this is thought a very re-
markable journey, requiring great energy, perseverance and execu-
tive ability.

ENGINEERING EXPLORATIONS IN MONTANA. 247

Lieutenant Fremont's expedition of 1845 an(l 1846 took him to
the head of the Arkansaw at the pass which has since borne his
name, and which is situated about ten miles from the city of Lead-
ville, thence down the Blue River to Middle Park, westward via the
White River to the Green and to Utah Lake, thence to Salt Lake
and westward to Humboldt River, making a more extensive survey
of the Great Basin as far north as the head water of the Klamath,
also in the valleys of California.

On March 3, 1853, Congress passed a resolution authorizing
and directing the Secretary of War to make reconnaissances to as-
certain the most practicable and economical route for a railway
from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. This work was
very thoroughly done by the engineer officers of the army, assisted
by civilian engineers, who had had experience in building railways
in the Eastern States. They went so far as to make preliminary
estimates of the cost of construction based upon these reconnais-
sances.

The routes examined were those of the 47th to 49th parallel,
called the Northern Pacific route, the 41st to 42d parallel, the 38th
to 39th parallel, the 35th parallel and the 32d parallel.

The route by the 38th-39th parallel was thought impracticable
because of the great elevation of the passes of the Rocky Moun-
tains, and the rough and broken country beyond. Upon all other
routes, estimates were made and their advantages and disadvan-
tages set forth in voluminous reports to the War Department. The
examination of the route of the 47th-49th parallel was intrusted to
Isaac I. Stevens, Governor of Washington Territory, and Lieu-
tenant George B. McClellan, afterward General McClellan, who
figured so prominently in the military operations of the first two
years of the Civil War.

Governor Stevens's examinations covered all of the territory,
excepting that part between Puget Sound and the Columbia River
via the passes of the Cascade Range, and, as most of his time and
that of his assistants was spent within what are now the boundaries
of the State of Montana, the geography of which should be familiar
to us all, I shall treat principally of his movements and their results.

No organized exploring party had been through this section of
the country since that of Lewis and Clarke, and exact knowledge
of its physical characteristics was very meager in the year 1853.

Governor Stevens's principal assistants were Lieutenant John
Mullan, Lieutenant A. J. Donaldson, officers of the army, and A. W.
Tinkham, F. W. Landor and James Doty, civilian engineers.

The parties were supplied with compasses, odometers and
barometers, also astronomical instruments for determining latitude

248 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

and longitude. From determinations made with these instruments,
maps and profiles were made of the various routes examined, and
from these profiles and notes estimates of the cost of wagon roads
and of a railroad from St. Paul to Puget Sound were prepared.

Governor Stevens began operations at St. Paul in May, 1853,
and by the first of September had reached Fort Benton, the civil
engineers having made a reconnaissance thus far, also a superficial
survey of the Missouri River. By the 30th of September Gov-
ernor Stevens and others of his party had reached St. Mary's vil-
lage in the Bitter Root Valley.

This was made headquarters for the expedition during its stay
in this section, which included the remainder of the year 1853 and a
part of the year of 1854.

The several parties passed a number of times from Fort Ben-
ton to St. Mary's, now known as Stevensville, going via Cadotts and
Lewis and Clarke's Pass at the head of the Big Blackfoot, thence
down the Big Blackfoot to Hell Gate, near the present site of Mis-
soula, also via two passes at the head of the Little Blackfoot, thence
via the Little Blackfoot and Hell Gate Rivers to Hell Gate and
Stevensville.

Lieutenant Mullan took a wagon from Fort Benton to Stev-
ensville between the 17th and 30th of March, 1854, traveling via
the north bank of the Missouri, the Sun River and the Little Prickly
Pear, to the pass at the head of the Little Blackfoot, which was
afterward used by the Northern Pacific Railway and which has for
many years been known as Mullan's Pass. From this pass he
went down the Little Blackfoot by the same route as that taken
by the Northern Pacific in 1882.

Lieutenant Mullan's first expedition, that of September, 1853,
went south from Fort Benton to a point south of the Musselshell
River, thence back to the Musselshell and nearly directly west,
crossing the mountains at the same pass.

Mr. A. W. Tinkham made a reconnaissance from Stevensville
across to the Flathead, thence by the east shore of Flathead Lake
and the Flathead River to Marias Pass and Fort Benton, between
the 7th of October and the 1st of November, 1853. His route,
from the head of Flathead Lake to the eastern base of the moun-
tains, was practically the same as that taken by the Pacific Exten-
sion of the Great Northern Railway in 1892-1893.

The most extensive single expedition from Stevensville as a
base was that of Lieutenant Mullan between November 28, 1853,
and January 11, 1854. From Stevensville he traveled up the Bitter
Root to what is now known as Gibbon's Pass, thence to the Big

ENGINEERING EXPLORATIONS IN MONTANA. 249

Hole Basin and southward to Horse Prairie, which he followed
nearly to the Beaver Head, thence by one of its tributaries south-
ward, crossing the main range by the same trail* used by Captain
Bonneville in 1833, thence to Fort Hall on the Snake River.

Returning, he came via Market Lake and Beaver Canyon,
crossing the main range at the head of Beaver Canyon by the pass
now used by the Utah and Northern Railway, thence northward,
following almost exactly the route afterward taken by the Utah
and Northern Railway to the mouth of the Deer Lodge River.
After crossing the pass at the head of Beaver Canyon, he crossed
over Red Rock Creek, and, by a low divide, to the waters of what
is now called Black Tail Deer Creek, thence to its mouth near the
present site of Dillon. With this exception I doubt whether his
trail from Market Lake to Garrison was anywhere more than two
miles distant from the present line of the Utah and Northern Rail-
way as built in 1 881-1882.

A number of routes were examined westward from Stevens-
ville by Governor Stevens himself and several of his assistants.
That by way of the Jocho, the Flathead and Clarke's Fork, of
Columbia, very nearly followed later by the Northern Pacific,
was thought the most feasible and was looked upon with the most
favor.

Between November 20 and December 30, 1853, Mr. Tinkham
made an examination of the route by the South Nez Perces Trail,
afterward known as the Elk City Trail. It goes up the West Fork
of the Bitter Root, thence westward across the Bitter Root Range,
a very high and broken country, to the mouth of the Clear Water
and to Walla Walla.

Lieutenant Mullan passed over what was known as the North
Nez Perces Trail, now commonly known as the Lolo Trail, be-
tween September 19 and October 2, 1853. He also made an ex-
amination up the Flathead Valley via the west side of the lake, up
Maple Creek and over on to the Kootenay River in April and May,
1854, returning to Stevensville by a trail lying some fifty miles to
the westward. He also crossed over the Bitter Root Mountains via
the St. Regis Borgia to Lake Cceur D'Alene, and pronounced it a
very excellent route for a wagon road.

The North Nez Perces Trail was traveled by Dr. Evans,
United States Geologist for Oregon, in 1850, also by Lewis and
Clarke in 1805- 1806. Evans and Mullan say it traverses a very
rough and rocky country, much broken by spurs and very uneven,
the trail lying on the mountain sides much of the way. It is the
same as that followed by Chief Joseph with his entire people and all
their effects, in their masterly retreat from the United States
soldiers in 1877.

*This trail, I judge from the description, lies some thirty miles west of
Beaver Canyon.

250 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Lieutenant McClellan's examinations were confined to the ter-
ritory between the Columbia River near Walla Walla and Puget
Sound.

With the exception of a few missionaries in the Flathead and
Bitter Root Valleys, there were then no white inhabitants in any
part of the territory under examination, which lay east of the west
boundary of Montana. The different parties, however, were al-
ways supplied with Indian guides who were well acquainted with
the country and who seemed to be perfectly willing to impart their
information to the whites. In fact, I have seen no mention of the
examination of any route where there was not already an Indian
trail then in use.

Large numbers of Indians living west of the mountains went
to the plains east thereof each year to hunt the buffalo, and occa-
sionally the warlike Crows and Blackfeet crossed to the west side
to steal the horses of their more peaceful neighbors. There were,
therefore, a great number of excellent trails crossing the mountains,
usually by the best passes; in fact, all the principal passes now in
use were used then.

The Indians were in all cases peacefully inclined. In all the
journals heretofore referred to I saw no mention of actual hos-
tilities worse than the stealing of horses, except in the journals of
Bonneville and of Lewis and Clarke. In the latter instance the
trouble was occasioned by the killing of a Blackfeet Indian by Cap-
tain Lewis near the Falls of Missouri.

During the years 1859- 1860 Captain Mullan constructed a
wagon road, for military purposes, from Fort Walla Walla to Fort
Benton via the St. Regis Borgia, the Bitter Root and Little Black-
foot, crossing the main range at the Mullan Pass, thence via the
Little Prickly Pear and Dearborn Rivers to the valley of the Mis-
souri.

The late Colonel Walter W. De Lacv, one of the charter mem-
bers of this Society, was an assistant to Captain Mullan during the
construction of this road. Captain Mullan says, in his report,
that the services of Captain De Lacy were especially valuable to
him because of the experience which he had obtained in railway
construction in the Eastern States.

This military road was 624 miles long, and cost $220,000. Im-
mediately upon its completion the settlement of the State began.

Captain Mullan was the most active of all Governor Stevens's
assistants during the period of exploration under his charge, and I
cannot close this paper without expressing my admiration for the
clear, forcible and elegant style of narrative employed in his reports,
and the energy, perseverance and skill displayed by him during his
seven years' operations within what are now the boundaries of the
State of Montana.

OBITUARY. 251

OBITUARY.

James S. B. Hollinshead.

James S. B. Hollinshead was born in
Lexington, Kentucky, in 1869, and died sud-
denly of heart failure in Butte, Montana, July
19, 1900.

His father was Peter C. Hollinshead, and
his mother Elizabeth Mills.

He was their only son, and the last sur-
viving- male member, with the exception of
an aged uncle, of the Hollinshead family.
He received his early education in private
schools in Kentucky, but when a youth the
family moved to Dayton, Ohio, where he attended the Dayton
High School.

In 1886, when seventeen years of age, he entered Lehigh
University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.

At the completion of his junior year, in 1889, he came to
Montana and entered the service of the Montana Central Railway,
and was sent to work on the location of the Neihart branch, in
the fall of 1890 he returned to Lehigh and completed his course,
graduating the following year, taking the degrees of Bachelor of
Science and Mining Engineer. He was fourth in his class, and
that entitled him to membership in the honorary society of San
Beta Delta of that university. While in college he worked during
the vacations and improved every opportunity to obtain remunera-
tive employment, and with the money thus earned paid his way
through college. He returned to Helena, Montana, in the summer
of 1891, and again entered the employ of the Montana Central
Railway. He was with them but a short time when he entered the
service of the Drum Lummond Company, at Marysville, under Mr.
John Herron, who is well known to the Montana Society of
Engineers.

In the fall of 1892 or spring of 1893 he entered the employ of
the Boston and Montana C. C. and S. Mfg. Co., at Great Falls.

He occupied various positions while in their employ, — as fore-
man on the gas producing during the trying days of developing the
production of gas from Sand Coulee coals ; foreman on the blast
furnaces and reverberatories, and general night foreman over the
whole smelter.

This position was rather severe on his health, and after several
periods of sickness he removed to Butte in February, 1897, and was
24

252 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

mining engineer for the Butte and Boston Con. Mfg. Co. until
January, 1900, when he resigned to open up a private office. After
a few months' work he again entered the employ of the Boston and
Montana C. C. and S. Mfg. Co. as engineer in charge of their
interests in the disputed territory that was in litigation between
them and the Montana Ore Purchasing Company, and was engaged
in this work until the time of his sudden death.

He was of a very enthusiastic temperament, and whatever he
undertook to do was vigorously pushed to a successful termination.
He was a devoted member of the Protestant Episcopal Church,
having been vestryman in the various churches in the cities where
he resided. He was always interested in the moral and religious
welfare of the community in which he lived, and many are the
men that have been assisted in their hour of need by his timely
generosity.

He was a devoted son and the trusted support and counsel
of his family during the lingering illness of his father in the later
years of his life.

In July, 1898, he was married to Daisy Evans, the daughter of
Mr. and Mrs. W. J. Evans, of Great Falls.

His domestic life was happy, hospitable and cong ! his

whole ambition was to provide comfort and happinc.
who were dependent upon him. His mother and sister were
with him at the time of his death. By his manly character an
genial disposition he made many friends wherever he resided, ana
his untimely death was deplored by all who had ever known him.

He was always interested in the welfare of the Montana
Society of Engineers, having been a member of the Society for
several years, and was one of our most respected and promising
members. He had made application to become a member of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, but died before the final
papers were made out.

The following resolutions were adopted :

Whereas, The Creator and Ruler of the Universe, in His infinite wis-
dom, has taken away from the Montana Society of Engineers one of its most
devoted members, James S. B. Hollinshead ; and

Whereas, The high esteem with which he was regarded by his associates
in the Society, impels us to express in our records the deep regret we feel
over his decease ; therefore,

Resolved, That we extend to the wife, the mother and the sister our
heartfelt sympathy, and assure them that of him there shall always remain a
cherished memory by this Society. In his honesty and zeal he was reaping
an ideal return for faithful endeavor when his promising career was ended.

OBITUARY. 253

Resolved, That the minutes of the Montana Society of Engineers shall
contain the words above written, and that a copy be sent to the relatives of
the deceased.

C. H. Repath, j

C. W. Good ale, I Committee.
C. H. Moore,

Henry M. Claflen.

The Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland, at the very opening
of the new century, is bereft of one of its oldest and most respected
members. Mr. Henry M. Claflen passed away after a lingering ill-
ness at an early hour New Year's morning, January 1, 1901, in his
sixty-sixth year. He was born in 1835 at Attleboro, Mass., was
of Scotch and Puritan descent, and in 1852 came to Cleveland with
his uncle, Peter Thacher, of the firm of Thacher, Bent & Co., to
engage in bridge building, an industry with which his name has
remained inseparably connected. Wooden bridges were then in
vogue, and the firm acquired a wide reputation in their construc-
tion.

During a part of the Civil War Mr. Claflen was employed by
the Governmc n expert, to superintend the rebuilding of rail-

way bri ' by Confederates in Tennessee and Ken-

tur'. , attended with many difficulties and dangers,

, ne accomplished with success, greatly facilitating
' :nts of the Union Army.

At the close of the war Mr. Claflen returned to Cleveland, and,
organizing the bridge-building firm of McNairy, Claflen & Co.,
became its president, and conducted for years a large and success-
ful business. The firm built a large number of bridges, of which
the iron portion of the Superior Street Viaduct in this city is a
monumental example. The concern was also engaged in car build-
ing on an extensive scale.

Mr. Claflen afterward organized the Claflen Paving and Con-
struction Co., of which he was president, taking large contracts
for the paving of the principal thoroughfares of Cleveland as well
as in other cities. These pavements were usually of wood in the
first instance, but as the material wore out stone was substituted.
Both these companies accumulated large sums of money, though
later, through unfortunate contracts, large amounts were lost.
Mr. Claflen at one time was reputed to be quite wealthy, yet owing
to a series of misfortunes, without fault on his part, he ended his
life a poor man. For the last few weeks he was cared for at St.
Vincent's Hospital.

254 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

It is doubly lamentable that a man of such ability and in-
tegrity, and unwearied devotion to business, having reached an age
when he might justly expect to settle down in the comfortable en-
joyment of his property, should find both property and life for-
saking him.

Mr. Claflen was married in 1863 to Miss Alice B. Hall,
daughter of John Hall, of Toronto, Canada, who survives him.
They had one son, who died young. His brother, Mr. Harvey T.
Claflen, constructing engineer at the Variety Iron Works, and his
family are the only remaining relatives in Cleveland.

Henry M. Claflen was a charter member of this Club, and
always took a deep interest in its welfare, subscribing liberally to
its funds and assisting on social occasions. His genial and happy
disposition made him a welcome companion, while his upright
character and refinement of manner won him the admiration of all.

In closing this sketch your committee would offer the follow-
ing:

Resolved, That in the death of Henry M. Claflen the Civil Engineers'
Club of Cleveland has lost a member who, since its organization, has hon-
ored it with his nane, his influence and his character.

Resolved, That this memoir be spread upon the minutes of the Club,
and published in th-j Journal.

Resolved, That a copy of the same, with the condolence of the Club, be
transmitted to the widow of the deceased.

Frank C. Osborn,
Wm. H. Searles,

Committee.

Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.

Association

OF

Engineering Societies.

Organized 1881.

Vol. XXVI. APRIL, 1901. No. 4.

V

This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or for
the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.

INSTALLATION, OPERATION AND ECONOMY OF STOR-
AGE BATTERIES.

By Ernest Lunn, Member Detroit Engineering Society.

[Read before the Society, February 28, 1901.*]

Where the conditions are such that the demand on the central
station is ever fluctuating and reaches a maximum in the winter
time of three or four times the average load for only an hour or an
hour and a half a day, which is the case in nearly all cities of the
size of Detroit, a storage battery plant is a very valuable auxiliary.

This paper will deal with the battery plant of the Edison
Illuminating Company, of Detroit, Mich., but before taking up that
subject I wish to give a short description of the cell most commonly
used in lighting and power stations.

There are several forms of cell, but all in commercial use are
of lead plates in dilute sulphuric acid, and depend for their action
on the formation of lead peroxide on the so-called positive plate
and of sponge lead on the negative when a current is forced
through the cell ; which formations are reduced again, with pro-
duction of a current in the reverse direction, as soon as the cell is
free to discharge. The typical cell is merely two plates of pure
lead in dilute acid. In practice the formations are facilitated by
previous mechanical or chemical preparation of the plates. The
mechanical preparation may be the slitting or grooving of the plates,
to facilitate the electrical action by exposing more of the metal to
the acid ; but it is more often a careful determination of the plate
structure, so as to secure and maintain the mechanical integrity.

^Manuscript received April 4, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
25

256 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The chemical preparations are usually lead oxides or salts as part
of the first construction, so that the work remaining to be done by
the earlier electrical charges may be a minimum.

It should be noted that there is no electrical storage in a so-
called storage battery or accumulator. The storage is of chemical
energy, as in any electrical battery cell, and the difference between a
common chemical battery and an accumulator is that in the latter
the chemicals used permit a reversible cycle, the electric discharge
being followed by an electric charge, which restores, with more
or less completeness, the chemical energy which gave the discharge.

The chemical actions involved in the process of discharging
and charging are very complicated, and have not been positively
determined. The commonly accepted theory is that, on discharge,
the lead peroxide on the positive plate is reduced to lead sulphate,
while at the same time the sponge lead on the negative is sulphated,
with the result that the sulphur radical is abstracted from the
electrolyte, leaving it more dilute, hence of lower specific gravity.

A reversal of conditions takes place during the charging
process. Oxygen and hydrogen are liberated by the electrolytic
action of the current, which is forced through the cell in opposite
direction to that of the discharging current. Oxygen unites with
the sulphate of the positive plate, converting it into lead peroxide
and liberating the sulphur radical, which goes back to the electro-
lyte, increasing its specific gravity. Hydrogen is freed at the nega-
tive plate, and decomposes the sulphate of lead on that electrode,
reducing it to pure lead. The sulphur returns to the electrolyte,
further increasing its specific gravity.

An accumulator cell consists of three parts : the tanks, the
plates and the electrolyte surrounding them. The retaining tanks
for large batteries are usually of heavy ash, lined on the inside with
pure sheet lead ; while those used in small cells are of either hard
rubber or glass. The Manchester positive* plate, made by the
Electric Storage Battery Company, of Philadelphia, has a frame-
work of lead alloy, containing a series of buttons. The framework
gives conductivity and strength to the plate, holds the buttons in
place and is continuous with the lug to which the bus bar is con-
nected.

The buttons, upon the surface of which is found the active
material, are made of lead ribbons about 9 inches long and -| inch
wide, corrugated on one side and rolled up, making them about
f inch in diameter. These are put into -holes in the alloy frame,

*The terms positive and negative apply to the terminals of a battery
exactly the same as we apply them to the terminals of a dynamo.

STORAGE BATTERIES. 257

which they just fit, and hydraulic pressure is brought to bear upon
ihem, which, with the subsequent forming process, causes them to
swell so that they fit firmly in their positions.

The special advantages of this button construction are that it is
free from buckling caused by the unequal expansion of active mate-
rial, and also that it exposes a very large surface to the action of the
electrolyte. Its spiral formation permits the attainment of both
these desirable qualities. Other batteries have differently formed
plates, but all manufacturers endeavor to make a plate which will
expose a large surface of active material to the electrolyte and
which will be free from danger of scale and metal short-circuiting
the cell internally, and at the same time be durable and free from
buckling.

As nearly as may be, the negative plate is of pure lead, but in
an allotropic state. Its construction is somewhat different than
that of the positive plate, although a few years ago both plates
were formed in a similar manner and like the present negative.
The essential qualities of a good negative plate are that it shall
have good conductivity and a framework strong enough to hold in
place the active material which must compose a greater part of the
plate. In the chloride plate a compound containing lead chloride
is formed into tablets about § inch square and £ inch thick. These
squares are placed in a mold, and a grid of nearly pure lead is cast
around under hydraulic pressure, leaving them about | inch apart.
They are intended to be as close together as the mechanical con-
struction of the plate will allow. After casting, the plates are sub-
jected to an electro-chemical reduction process, which removes the
chlorine from the tablets and leaves them in the form of spongy
lead, chemically pure and very porous.

A good positive plate must have ample surface over which the
active material may spread, while it is essential that the negative be
porous enough to allow a rapid diffusion or circulation of the acid
as it comes in contact with the lead particles, not merely on the
surface, but throughout the mass. On this quality depends to a
great extent the maximum rate of charge and discharge. If a par-
ticle of lead, after being partially sulphated, is surrounded by a
dilute solution of sulphuric acid, having a high resistance and low
specific gravity, it is practically incapable of adding any energy to
the circuit of which it is a part until a stronger (and hence lower
resistance) solution of acid has come in contact with it. At any
given rate of discharge, the attainment of this state of helplessness
on the part of the particles composing the negative plates is the
working limit.

258 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

A short rest, or a lower rate of discharge, will allow the cell
to regain the normal voltage corresponding to the amount of active
material left unacted upon in the plates. It will thus be seen that
the freedom with which the electrolyte may diffuse in the plates
decides the question of the maximum charge and discharge rates of
the battery.

An ideal battery would be one which gave up the same number
of ampere hours whether discharged at a high or at a low rate. In
central station work, where the load is fluctuating, and especially
where there is a very decided peak for a short time, — say for one
hour, — it is the battery with sufficient capacity to carry that peak
that is wanted ; and yet in the accumulator of to-day the total
capacity at the one-hour rate is only half what it is at the eight-
hour rate, and only a few years ago the maximum was very little
over the eight-hour rate.

The voltage, on open circuit between the positive and negative
plates of a cell, ranges from 2 to 2.2 volts. This variation depends
upon the type of cell and upon the state of charge. As soon as
discharge begins the pressure drops, and it continues to drop until
the limiting point is reached, which is about 1.7 volts. This lower
limit coincides with the reduction of all the available active mate-
rial. The reaching of this limit, as already noted, does not prove
that there is no more active material left in the plates, but only that
there is none in working contact with the electrolyte. Sometimes
a series of cells may have an average voltage less than 1.7, which
means that some cells are useless and are being charged by the
current forced through them by the others in the series.

The electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid, 28 per cent, by bulk.
Both acid and water must be chemically pure. The impurities most
to be avoided are those which affect the chemical reactions in the
plates, the metals being particularly objectionable. The acids other
than sulphuric which are present in commercial sulphuric acid —
i.e., nitric and hydrochloric acid — are likewise to be avoided.
There is evaporation of water from the surface of the electrolyte,
and there is a loss of fluid by spraying during the latter part of
charge. These losses have to be made good by the addition of pure
water and new electrolyte. A still for water distillation is a com-
mon annex to a large battery. The loss of acid is usually negligible.

Setting Up. In setting up a battery, the positive plates of one
cell are connected to a lead bus bar, on the opposite side of which
are connected the negatives of the next cell.

Fig. 1 shows the arrangement of plates and bus bar connec-
tions. At present the plates occupy only one-half of the available

STORAGE BATTERIES.

259

space in the tanks. The battery will be completed as the demand
for service requires increased capacity.

Connection to System. In connecting the battery to the system,
three methods may be followed, according to the manner in which
the battery is operated.

In railway work, and particularly in suburban lines when the
potential of the system is extremely variable, the battery is con-
nected in multiple with the system. It discharges when there is a
drop in voltage caused by a heavy demand for current, and receives
its charge when the voltage rises above the normal pressure of the

Fig. 1. Storage Battery Tanks.

system. At all other times it is allowed to float, neither charging
nor discharging. A cable connection is usually made to a genera-
tor, so that an occasional charge may be given it if necessity
demands. No other regulating apparatus is required. A battery
connected in this manner is used simply to equalize the pressure on
the system, and does not sustain any regular charge and discharge.
In "street railway systems, where the battery is used not only to
equalize the pressure, but to carry regular peaks, special apparatus
for charging and discharging must be provided. The apparatus
used for this purpose is called a "booster." A booster is simply a
motor-driven generator in series with the battery circuit. When a

260 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

charge is given the battery the booster raises the pressure at the
terminals of the accumulator sufficiently to force through it the
desired amount of charging current. On discharge it has a reverse
action, and lowers the pressure over the battery until the desired
discharging current is obtained. The booster commonly used in
railway operation is a "differential booster," so called because it has
a differential winding which permits the charge and discharge to
be governed automatically.

In a lighting system, where the pressure must be kept much
more constant than in railway work, the regulation is controlled by
a series of end-cells connected to end-ceil switches, together with
a booster. The booster may be used for either charging or dis-
charging, but has no automatic controlling arrangement. It is
customary to use the booster only on charge. The discharge is
controlled by the end-cell switches.

The so-called "end-cells" are merely a certain number of the
terminal cells of the battery, so arranged that any number of them
may be successively connected in series with the main battery as the
load increases and cut out again as the load drops off.

The number of end-cells, as well as the number in the main
battery, depends upon the voltage at which the system is operated.
The maximum voltage of the main battery must equal the normal
voltage of the system. There must be a sufficient number of end-
cells to insure proper regulation under all conditions of charge,
and also to provide for the distribution drop of the system. For
instance, in a 125-volt system this would mean fifty cells in the
main battery and about thirty additional end-cells to give a bus bar
voltage of 136 at end of discharge. From the cell bus bars between
the end-cells copper leads are run to the end-cell switches, ter-
minating in a series of studs arranged in succession. Parallel to
these studs is a copper slide, from which connection is made to the
switchboard. A laminated copper brush, making sliding contact
with the slide, is moved successively over the studs by means of a
screw propelled either by hand or by a motor.

Fig. 2 shows one of the end-cell switches, showing the arrange-
ment of the copper slide and studs.

The operation of the battery is very simple. In the Edison
system, for instance, the pressure across the mains is about 120
volts. In order to balance the battery against this pressure it will
be necessary to have about 60 cells in series, counting two volts per
cell. In this condition it acts as a regulator, or floats ; for if there
is a rise of pressure on the mains, due to a sudden cessation in the
demand for current, the batterv will absorb the surplus energy by

STORAGE BATTERIES.

261

suffering a slight charge ; while, on the other hand, should the pres-
sure suddenly fall, the battery discharges enough to keep the volt-
age almost constant in the system.

In street railway work, where the load is much more fluc-
tuating than in lighting, this characteristic of the battery is of great
consequence.

As the cells discharge, additional cells have to be added, in
series with those already in, in order to keep the pressure constantly
120 volts at the service ends of the mains. This is done by moving
the sliding: contact brush further alone: the end-cell switch. As the

Fig. 2. End Cell Switch.

load drops off, these cells, previously cut in, have to be cut out
again. This is done by moving the brush in the opposite direction.
The end-cell switches are operated from the switchboard, so that
the operator has complete control of the battery from his position
at the board.

Availability. In order that the effect of the Edison battery
may be easily understood, I wish to say a word concerning the
general plan of the Edison Illuminating Company's underground
distribution system. This will be necessary because the battery
plant is now a part of that system, and its value can better be

262

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

appreciated when the conditions of the field previous to the installa-
tion of the battery are understood.

The main station (Station "A," corner of State street and
Washington avenue) has been, and is at present, the generating
plant for nearly all the current used in the underground system.

Fig. 3 is a diagram showing the relative positions of this station
and the centers of distribution of the underground system within
the half-mile circle ; also the location of the battery station, Sta-
tion "E."

ORCH4RO
BEECH STH

— 1 1 1 n — 1 i^\f 1

EDISON ILLUMINATING Co.

DETROIT, MICH.
CODE
Main

Fig. 3. Plan of Company's System.

Last spring the Edison Illuminating Company was facing the
proposition of determining the most economical way to increase the
output of the generating station. It was estimated that the holiday
season load would run about 4000 cr 5000 amperes, or 500 to 600
kilowatts, higher than the year before ; and in the previous year the
station was loaded to its full capacity. Owing to the already
crowded condition of Station A, the cost of installing generating
machinery sufficient to supply the demand for the coming year,
with some facilities for taking care of the probable increase of load
of the following season, would, it was figured, be greater than the
cost of an accumulator plant.

STORAGE BATTERIES.

263

264 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Furthermore, it was not only undesirable, but next to impos-
sible, to increase sufficiently the output of Station A.

A converter station, taking power from our alternating system,
and situated where the battery, Station E, now is, would have been
a possible expedient had it not been for the fact that the peaks, on
both the Edison and the alternating stations, take place about the
same time. The additional equipment necessary to insure service
equal to that given by the battery would have cost more than the
battery. The peak, which comes only in the winter months, lasts,
all told, not more than 125 hours per year; and to install gen-
erating machinery to carry that load for that length of time, and to
lie practically idle the remainder of the year, would mean an
expenditure of money difficult to realize encouraging dividends on.
With a storage battery plant it is different ; it takes the high peak
in the winter months and furnishes the system with sufficient
reserve at all times, while at the same time it allows two-thirds of
its capacity to be used at will every day in the year. Whatever the
advantages afforded by the battery, they ars felt every day. Fewer
boilers have to be kept fired up and fewer engines ready to run,
and the generating machinery can be worked at the point of greatest
economy.

Location. The decision to install a battery led to the investiga-
tion of possible sites. A theoretical location could have been easily
determined by taking into account the existing conditions and the
possible extension of the system had not other conditions introduced
very important limiting factors. These factors included the avail-
able sites, their comparative cost and the comparative cost of copper
necessary to make the best connection to the system, besides the
fire risk to which the location of each would subject the battery
plant.

Construction of Building. The lot selected gave no excess of
space. The sectional elevation of the battery station shows this
(see Fig. 4).

To get the battery in place without crowding, and with con-
venient arrangement of copper, required considerable study. The
final copper plan was drawn by. the battery company after the
dimensions of the room were fixed by us, and the copper and
switches were got out according to this approved plan while the
building was in progress. Work was begun on the foundation
May 1, 1900, and the building was finished in August.

The wall above the opening for the end-cell switches is of
brick, clear through to the roof, thus separating the battery room
from the rooms in front. There are good reasons for having it

STORAGE BATTERIES.

26:-

so arranged, the principal one being that it protects the cells from
fire originating in the dwelling rooms. Fire is not likely to origi-
nate elsewhere. The switchboard and booster room is directly
above the end-cell switch room. All the operating is done from
this room.

To go back to the construction of the building. It is abso-
lutely necessary that there be a good foundation, for there are 160
tanks, weighing about 2 tons apiece, in a room 30 x 85 feet. These
must be kept in perfect alignment, and any sinking or failing in the
foundation would cause serious trouble. The natural foundation

Fig. 5. Station E.

was found to be of clay. A good system of drainage was put in
the ground, so that the tile came under the walks between the tanks,
and then a covering of concrete 16 inches thick was spread on,
coarse at the bottom and finer at the top. This used up the material
of the building found on the lot. Upon this were placed extra
heavy paving bricks. It took eight barrels of pitch, between the
bricks, to complete the foundation, which, when it was done and
dry, was perfectly level and also a good insulator. One fails to
detect the slightest sign of a current when standing on the floor
and feeling at the same time any of the live conductors. (Those

266

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

who are accustomed to getting a poke every time they lay a hand
on a wire around a station will appreciate the convenience of hav-
ing a non-conducting floor.)

The side walls are of red pressed and partially vitrified brick
to a height of about 9 feet above the floor, continuing the rest of the
way of ordinary building brick. This pressed brick is acid-proof.
The front is of gray pressed brick, and so designed as to give' the
building the appearance of a dwelling house rather than that of an
electric lighting station. (See Fig. 5.)

Installing the Battery. The setting of the tanks was an opera-
tion requiring great care. On account of their weight, they must
be well supported. Insulation, too, is a matter of great import-
ance. Each tank is supported on eight petticoated insulators,

14000

12000

10000

in 8000

0000

4000

2000

n

A

/

B

6 8 10 12 2

.M. TIME

4

6

P.M

Fig. 6. Load Curve.

Thursday, January 25, 1900. Storage battery not installed.

which rest on vitrified tile 7 inches wide and £ inch thick, set to a
templet and on sulphur. With the tile set and the porcelain insula-
tors fastened to the bottoms of the tanks by being stuck into their
places with hot pitch, the operation of tank setting became both
simple and rapid. As soon as a few tanks were put in place, the
glass supporting plates were put in, and the battery plates sup-
ported on these. In this way a large force of men was kept at
work. Different gangs were setting tile and tanks, and cleaning
up plates and putting them in place in the tanks at the same time.
As soon as it could be done, the work of burning the plates to the
lead bus bar was commenced.

Burning is necessary instead of the more convenient soldering,
because solder would be promptly attacked by the acid spray.

STORAGE BATTERIES.

267

Perhaps the most interesting of all the work was filling the
tanks with the acid. At the rear of the building was placed a tank
similar to one of those used for the battery, and about 8 feet above
them. Ten rubber tubes (garden hose) were constantly siphoning
the acid from the tank to the battery tanks. A gang of men was
emptying carboys into the upper tank as fast as they could be
handled. A carboy would be tipped upside down over the tank,
the box surrounding it supporting it in such a way that its neck
extended into the tank about 5 inches. Tha acid in the tanks could
therefore never get above the level of the mouth of the carboy as
it was thus inverted. As soon as one was placed on the tank and
20000

12000

Fig. 7. Load Curve.

Tuesday, December 18, 1900. Storage battery installed.

started to empty, it was shoved along to make room for another,
and was empty by the time two others had been put on behind it.
The process was very rapid, and over 2000 carboys were emptied
in about a day and a half. Everything had to be so far com-
pleted by the time the acid was in that the first charge could begin
immediately afterward, for it injures the plates to allow them to
stand in the electrolyte for any length of time in an uncharged con-
dition. The injury is in the formation of an irreducible sulphate.
The first charge was begun immediately and continued for
thirty hours, the rate being comparatively low, — 500 amperes to
start with and increased later to 700 amperes. The cells were over-

268

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

charged on the first occasion and on the next few charges, the object
being to complete the formation of the active material, which is
nearly, but not quite, completed when the plates leave the factory.
Operation. The subject of operation can best be understood
by an inspection of the following curves :

1000U

SOCIO

GOOO

4000

2000

A

\

— -

B

2 4 6 8 10 12

A.M. TIME

4 6 8 10 12

P.M.

Fig. 8.

Sunday, September 23, 1900. Storage battery not installed.

Fig. 6 shows a characteristic load curve previous to the installa-
tion of the battery.

Line A, called the engine curve, represents the normal rating
of the units running. Line B, called the commercial load curve,
represents the amperes supplied to the system.

It will be noticed that the load factor of the engines' run —
that is, the ratio of the ordinates of curves B to A — is compara-

6000

4000

2000

engi'ne curvJe

storage battery charging

STORAGE BATTERY DISCHARGING
BOOSTER CONSUMPTION

0 8

A.M.

6 8

P.M.

Fig. 9. Load Curve.

Sunday, November 25, 1900. Storage battery installed.

tively low. It was necessary to run the engines at this low load
factor in order to secure reliable service under all conditions of
operation.

Fig. 7 illustrates a characteristic load curve after the battery
was installed. The cross-hatched areas represent the operation of
the battery. It will be noticed that the load factor has been greatly
increased. This is due to the fact that the battery was on the
system and supplied a reserve, making it unnecessary to run gen-

STORAGE BATTERIES.

269

erating machinery below the normal rating, as was done before the
battery was installed.

Figs. 8 and 9 are characteristic Sunday load curves, before and
after the battery was installed respectively. Compare again the
ioad factors in the two cases.

Fig. 10 shows the operation of the battery in emergency cases.
On account of a feed-water pipe bursting at the generating station,
the plant was shut down for about three-quarters of an hour, while
the battery carried the entire district load, giving the engineers
sufficient time to get another boiler unit in commission.

Fig. 10. Load Curve.

Wednesday, November 21, 1900. Storage battery installed.

Fig. 11. Curve O O O is the battery capacity curve, made up
from data furnished by the Electric Storage Battery Company.
The discharge rates are plotted as ordinates ; the time and hours as
abscissas, the capacity being 2750 ampere hours at the one-hour
discharge rate, 3750 at the two and one-half, 4350 at the three and
5440 ampere hours at the eight-hour rate.

Curves A A A, B B B, etc., are curves showing the various
discharges in ampere hours, plotted in a similar manner to the
capacity curve.

It is well known that the available capacity of a battery in-
creases as the rate of discharge decreases, and it was for the pur-

270

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

pose of showing the relation existing between them that the capacity
curve was superposed on the discharge curves.

Suppose at any particular time it is known that, say, 2500
ampere hours have been taken from the battery at various rates of
discharge, and it is desired to know how long a certain discharge
rate, say 2000 amperes, can be carried. Follow up the 2500-
ampere discharge curve until it intersects the 2000-ampere rate line.
The distance between this point of intersection and the point where
the 2000-ampere rate line cuts the capacity curve represents the
length of time that 2000 amperes can be carried, which is about

4000

3500

- 2500

2U00

1500

"

III

1

1

1

\\vx

\ \\N\V

^

w

^
■^^

0

_J000~~~m

10

TIME IN HOURS

Fig. 11. Battery Curves.

Capacity curve shows capacity of battery at different rates of discharge.
Discharge curves show various discharges in ampere hours and their relation to the capacity

curve.

twenty minutes. With the battery in the same condition, 1500
amperes could be carried for about forty-five minutes, as shown by
the distance between the points of intersection of the 1500-ampere
rate line with the 2500-ampere discharge curve and the capacity
curve.

In a similar manner, it can easily be calculated how long any
rate can be carried by the battery, or whether it can be carried at all,
if the ampere hours previously taken out are known.

It is not customary to work the battery near enough to its limit
to make it necessary to consult the curves. It is, however, very

STORAGE BATTERIES. 271

valuable in emergency cases to know how lcng a certain rate can be
carried. The curves have been repeatedly found to be very reliable,
and to know just how long the battery can be depended upon to
carry a given load, if necessity demands, is a source of no small
satisfaction to the operator.

Economy. — The real economy of an accumulator plant is hard
to determine, constituting as it does only a small part of a large
system, each department of which adds to or detracts from the
economic operation of the whole, according to the degree of effi-
ciency with which each branch is run. It would be unfair to expect
the number of pounds of coal burned per kilowatt-hour output to
be greatly decreased on account of having the battery in operation
when it is remembered that only about 8 per cent, of the output is
dealt with by the battery. It has been impossible to get accurate
data on this point. There has been a falling off in the amount of
coal burned for a given output since the battery was installed, but
I am not prepared to say that the saving in the coal bills, calculated
along that line, is more than enough to pay the operating expenses
of the battery station.

I do hold, however, that the cost of operating and maintaining
an accumulator plant (the one under consideration in particular) is
no greater than that of a complete generating plant of the same
capacity, and in the above-mentioned case the cost of installation
of such a plant would have been in excess of the first cost of the
battery. In such a steam plant we would not have expected any
greater reduction in the cost of coal per kilowatt-hour than we have
already experienced while using the battery. There are other
reasons, however, for believing that the installation of the battery
plant was a wise move. Situated as it is, it makes it possible to
cover districts which could not be reached directly from Station A.
Not only that, but the whole system feels the effect of the better
regulation afforded by the battery. It acts as a reservoir, ready at
all times to give energy to the system, and forestalling any drop in
pressure which could be caused by the failure of any single unit at
the generating station. It is customary to keep always enough
reserve energy in the battery to carry for about an hour the load
dropped by such an accident, giving the engineers plenty of time to
get another set of generators or boiler plant in commission. This
reserve amounts to about one-third of the capacity of the battery.
We are at liberty then to use the other two-thirds in whatever way
good operation demands.

So far the battery has given the best of satisfaction. During
the summer months we expect to use it to as great an advantage as
26

272 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

during the past winter. Thunder-storm peaks can be taken care of
without the necessity of keeping boilers in readiness for such an
emergency, and the load factor of the engines run can be raised to
the most economical point of operation, reducing by no small
amount the number of pounds of coal burned per given output. As
a means by which the output of the system could be increased the
battery was the cheapest and best ; and as for supplying reserve,
ready at a moment's notice, it has no equal. Its many other virtues
only strengthen an ever-growing respect for it.

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 273

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION.

>y C. R. Neher.

[Read before the Engineers' Society of Western New York, March 5, 1901.*]

The object of the present paper on concrete construction is to
give a few practical suggestions based on actual experience. I have
no new theories to advance, but am a believer in the use of a wet
mixture, of such proportions as to give a maximum of strength
under compression, always using Portland cement. Where
economy is necessary, I would introduce large stone in the heart of
the mass, or cellular construction, but would not cheapen the
concrete.

My remarks will be from the standpoint of the purchaser and
contractor, as well as the engineer. As engineers, in our desire to
secure good work and uniform results, we are apt to introduce un-
necessary refinements, resulting in increased cost, retarding the
progress of the work and often defeating the end in view.

As concrete is almost always used in compression, I would
recognize no test but that of the actual mixture to be used in the
work and that under compression. Such a test demonstrates the
excellence of all the ingredients and whether they are properly
proportioned. Even with excellent ingredients, low results are
often obtained by reason of wrong proportions. To illustrate, last
summer I had occasion to test the value of copper slag and lake
gravel in concrete. The gravel alone, mixed five parts gravel to
one of cement, was good for about 60 tons per square foot ultimate
compression after seven days. The standard of excellence desired
was that obtained by limestone and gravel, mixed 1 cubic foot of
cement to 2| cubic feet limestone (passing a 2-inch ring, pieces J
inch and under excluded) and 2.\ cubic feet of lake gravel, which
gave an average ultimate compression in seven days of 135 tons
per square foot.

My first tests on the slag mixture gave only about 80 tons per
square foot in seven days, and appeared to demonstrate a low value
for the slag; but examination of the fracture showed an excess of
gravel and a fracture through the spaces where the most gravel
existed. A slight diminution in the quantity of the gravel gave
results of over 140 tons in seven days. The copper slag is shown
by analysis to be free from deleterious chemicals, except lime, and
its use in work of four years' standing seems to prove the absence
of free lime. The slag can be obtained cheaper per cubic yard than

*Manuscript received April 23, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

274

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

stone, but, by reason of its great weight (about 3300 pounds per
cubic yard for run of crusher, against 2800 pounds for limestone),
the cost of transportation and handling is increased. Owing to its
weight and abrasive qualities, the duty is harder on the mechanical
mixer and tools, and the slag is more apt than limestone to separate
itself from the other ingredients when thrown from a height or
used with a large amount of water ; and its apparent economy is
largely offset by the objections mentioned.

1 he engineer should seek to obtain greatest strength, complete
filling of voids and a smooth exterior ; all of which can be obtained

Under Section of Floor, Eastern Elevator, Showing Beams and Girders.
Ransome Concrete Construction.

by simple means. An excess of fine material, while producing a
good finish, weakens the concrete ; imperfect filling of voids pro-
duces rough work, and is also an element of weakness ; therefore,
to define the exact proportions to be used in any piece of work
necessitates an intimate knowledge of the exact materials that will
be used by the contractor to whom the work is awarded. As stone
from different quarries does not produce the same fracture or the
same amount of fine material, it is seldom wise to state the exact
proportions, except that of the cement to the rest of the aggregate,
the remaining ingredients to be so proportioned as to fill all voids
without an excess of fine material, leaving the exact amounts to be

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION.

275

determined by experiment with the actual materials to be used
when placed on the work.

Specifications should state the minimum size of broken stone
allowed, as well as the maximum, as broken stone is graded in five
commercial sizes ; and to determine the voids it is necessary to
know the sizes included in the coarse aggregate. As a measure of
economy, it is well to specify run of crusher, dust removed. This
is usually sold at 5 per cent, less than the graded sizes, and contains
about 20 per cent, more material, leaving less fine material to be
supplied to fill voids, resulting in a saving of 25 per cent., which

Thirty-six-inch Floor, Eastern Elevator, Buffalo, N. Y. Ransome
Concrete Construction.

will be offset somewhat by greater cost per cubic yard for trans-
portation.

Thorough ramming should always be specified. The general
impression among men employed in placing concrete is that little
ramming is required if the mixture is wet. This is a mistake.
Large voids will show in the face of the work if not thoroughly
tamped ; and the fact that wet mixtures are seldom tamped enough
is one of the reasons why it sometimes does not show up so well in
testing as compared with dry mixing, which must necessarily be
thoroughly tamped.

Thorough mixing should also be insisted on, and on all work

2?6

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

where an amount to exceed 40 cubic yards per day is placed me-
chanical means should be used. In this way greater strength and
uniformity can be obtained at less expense than by the addition of
cement.

A concrete composed separately of several of the commercial
sizes of broken stone, gravel, sand, etc., is always expensive. The
coarser size stone, passing a 2-^-inch ring, with the voids filled by
the addition of the smaller sizes, sand, etc., would take 45 cubic
feet to make one cubic yard in place, or a yield of 60 per cent. ;
besides adding to the expense of the handling and being very diffi-

Arrangement of Forms and Twisted Steel Rods, Thirty-six-inch Floor
Eastern Elevator. Top View.

cult to properly proportion by the ordinary laborer. Equally good
results would be obtained by run of crusher, sand and cement, giv-
ing only three ingredients to watch, and resulting in a very material
saving in expense. As eternal vigilance is the price of success in
concrete work, simplifying of methods is desirable. We err when
we introduce refinements, which increase the cost and give no
corresponding results.

To produce smooth work, the addition of granolithic face or
plastered surface is unnecessary. Smooth forms, with concrete
well proportioned, will give just as smooth work at much less cost,
leaving the whole mass uniform, without a line of separation or

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION.

277

difference of compressive strength. As an illustration of this, the
concrete foundation and floor of the Eastern elevator and the foun-
dations of the new Dakota elevator are good examples, and a cor-
dial invitation is extended to all to examine this work. A large
portion of this work was placed in midwinter, proving that good
work can be done at all times and seasons, although the expense is
about 20 per cent, greater.

Another way to produce finish is to joint the concrete to repre-
sent masonry, using rough lumber for forms ; then bush-hammering
the face, which can be done by an ordinary laborer at i-| cents per

Concrete Foundations, Dakota Elevator, Buffalo, N. Y.

All made in February, 1901. Thermometer o° to 400. Cost 63 cents per cubic yard to heat.

square foot. The amount saved by using rough lumber goes a
long way toward paying for the bush-hammering, which removes
all impressions from inequality of molds, efflorescence, etc. The
front of the Eastern elevator, facing the dock, is so treated.

1 he preparation of forms calls for considerable ingenuity, and
every contract requires special study, to the end that smooth sur-
faces be left, with unbroken corners, that the swelling of the wood
does not rupture the concrete or leave distorted surfaces ; and that
the forms be so designed, as to be used several times, and readily
set up and taken down and later on devoted to other uses. As the

278 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

charge for forms against the concrete can seldom be kept below
50 cents per cubic yard for heavy work, there is always an oppor-
tunity for the ingenuity of the designer, as few rules can be laid
down for his guidance.

The use of matched or tongue-and-grooved stuff is not desir-
able, as concrete fills in the openings and there is no opportunity
to expand from moisture. Unmatched boards dry apart and let
the water in the concrete leak out, carrying with it some of the
cement. Later on they swell and buckle and, if used as interior
forms, burst the concrete. The best way devised so far is to bevel
one edge of the boards, using narrow stuff, not to exceed 6 inches.
The sharp edge of the bevel, lying against the square edge of the
adjoining board, allows the edge to crush when swelling and closes
up the joint, preventing buckling.

A coat of soft soap, before filling the forms, prevents the con-
crete from adhering to the forms, which should always be scraped
and brushed with a steel-wire brush when taken down.

Square corners should be avoided, as they readily chip off ; and
where used as interior forms for recesses or cellular construction,
a fillet should always be placed in the corners.

Concrete can often be saved by introducing cells in the mass.
These are formed either by cheap hemlock boxes, which can be
left in the work, or by collapsible boxes which can be withdrawn
and used over again. Where weight is desirable, one-man stone
can be rammed in the heart of the mass, reducing the cost very
materially.

Where, for economy in handling or other reasons, it is desir-
able to dump the concrete from a considerable height, some precau-
tion should be taken to avoid having the coarse aggregates separate
from the rest of the mass. This can be accomplished in several
ways, — either by chains loosely stretched at intervals across a chute
or by shelves extending part way across the chute at an incline, so
as to deposit on a corresponding shelf on the opposite side, so
alternating the length of the chute. Either of these methods is a
direct benefit, as it more thoroughly mixes the concrete.

Our building laws as a rule show little knowledge of the value
of concrete, ordinarily limiting its use to 16 tons or less per square
foot, involving a larger factor of safety than is required for any
other material. This probably is due to the large amount of poor
concrete turned out, and also to a desire to exclude from the build-
ing trades a material that can be placed by unskilled labor.

Regarding the introduction of steel or iron in its various forms
in concrete to give tensile strength, there is no question as to its

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 279

utility if properly used. I claim no special knowledge of any of the
systems except the Ransome, which appears to me the best, for the
following reasons : It is a perfect system, from which the entire
structure, from foundations to roof, can be made without the intro-
duction of I beams or metal framework of any description, except
molding in the cold-twisted square steel bars.

The cold-twisting which the square bars receive has many
advantages possessed by no other system. The twisting prevents
the rod from drawing in the concrete, making the grip on it con-
tinuous and uniform, rendering the strains all equal. It further
decreases the ductility of the metal, making it act more nearly in
harmony with the concrete, — a vital point when the nature of con-
crete is considered. Incidentally, we also gain a marked increase
in tensile strength, which in practice we generally throw in as an
extra factor of safety. The application of concrete-metal is in its
infancy, and in a short time I predict it will be used in many ways
not now thought of. Its application so far has been markedly suc-
cessful. The floor of the Eastern elevator is, I believe, the boldest
application, to date, of concrete-metal construction. The actual
load on the floor is 4470 pounds, and the dead weight of the floor is
300 pounds per square foot, taking the load as uniformly dis-
tributed. When we consider that the grain load is concentrated on
the rim of the tank, and generally taken as two-thirds of the whole
load ; that the supporting columns, owing to the peculiar layout of
the property, have no relation to the position of the tanks, and that
in practice some bins are full and others empty, giving eccentric
loading, we see that the problem was a difficult one. The efficiency
of the construction is still to be demonstrated. Of its success I
have no question. The basement floor of this elevator was built
for a live load of 75 pounds, but it has been loaded over almost its
entire surface with from 300 to 500 pounds per square foot fre-
quently in seven days after being placed, and that in midwinter.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Diehl. — Mr. Neher, will you give us a description of the
work you are doing at the Eastern Elevator, also at the Dakota
Elevator ?

Mr. Neher. — The property of the Eastern Elevator is angular,
being a rhomboid in plan. The new site occupies the same position
as the old elevator destroyed by fire in August, 1900. So far as
possible the old piles and masonry piers were utilized. The piers
were placed 12 feet centers and at right angles to each other and
to the long side of the property. The old plans showed 16 piles

280 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

per pier, a heavy timber grillage, and well-proportioned stone
piers, stepped up in uniform courses, with equal offsets. Excava-
tion revealed the fact that there were only 12 piles per pier, and
that the masonry was laid directly on the pile heads. Many of
the piers were of the size of the cap stones, all the way down to
the footing stone. In 80 per cent, of these piers the bottom
courses of stone were badly broken. As 12 piles per pier were con-
sidered insufficient, four more were added in each case, making the
load on each pile about 20 tons. Where the old piers were left
in, 4 piles were driven outside, and the whole was surrounded with
concrete, and prevented from cleaving from the stone by twisted
steel bars running around the piers. In the cases where the
stone was removed, the 4 piles were added. Excavation was ex-
tended 3 inches below the pile heads. One-inch twisted steel
bars were laid across the pile heads entirely across the width of
the pier in both directions, and concrete was then rammed in the
forms until it reached a point 24 inches above the rods. Above
this, after thoroughly setting, piers with an area sufficient to
withstand a load of 35 tons per square foot were molded, to the
height of the basement floor, a height over all of about 7 feet. On
these piers, columns 9 feet high and 33 inches square were built,
and directly on these was placed the heavy floor 36 inches deep, al-
ready mentioned.

The President. — Were the piles driven to the rock?

Mr. Neiier. — No, sir. Some few brought up on a hard pan.
Most of the piles were driven down from 28 to 35 feet. The
hard pan varies at different depths. Some of the piles seemed to
be broken in the soil.

Mr. Knighton. — How does this concrete construction com-
pare in price with the ordinary construction ?

Mr. Xeher. — Taking the price of the materials entering into
an ordinary wall. I should say the Ransome construction was
somewhat more expensive. While this construction is not a sub-
stitute for everything, still I think for work such as we are doing"
at the Eastern Elevator it is much better than the ordinary con-
struction and cheaper than steel.

Mr. Vander Hoek. — What is the twisted iron put in the
concrete for?

Mr. Neher. — To take care of the tension. Where there is
to be a great load on a floor I do not think there is anything-
that will stand like the Ransome svstem. Before it was taken up
by our firm, I studied very thoroughly the matter of the different
forms of construction, and I came to the conclusion that this

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 281

was the best system for heavy loading. For instance, at Bayonne,
N. J., there is a borax factory, the floor of which was built to
withstand a pressure of 500 pounds per square foot. There are
portions of this floor which have been loaded up to 1200 and 1300
pounds per square foot.

Mr. Vander Hoek. — You spoke of the cement briquettes as
breaking at 85 tons after seven days. Were these briquettes of the
ordinary form?

Mr. Neher. — They were 6-inch cubes, and we used a hydraulic
jack. I think in this case it was Atlas cement. We have used
both Atlas and Lehigh, and have got about the same results from
each. We sent a boy to the mixer, and he picked out a batch
just as it came from the mixer. Where we made tests by hand
mixture we did not get as good results.

Mr. Vander Hoek. — You used Portland in every case ?

Mr. Neher. — Yes, sir.

Mr. Tutton. — What mixer do you use?

Mr. Neher. — The Ransome. We have made some improve-
ments on it.

Mr. Tutton. — We are using one, but we have not made any
tests.

Mr. Neher. — The record made by us is 146 yards in 13
hours, with the small mixer. We laid on an average 41 to 42
batches in 10 hours. This could not be done if fed with wheel-
barrows. We fed the machine with a rotating derrick and dump
buckets.

Mr. Rockwood. — Did you use any salt ?

Mr. Neher. — We always use salt, a 10 per cent, solution.

Mr. Rockwood. — Regardless of the weather ?

Mr. Neher. — Yes, sir.

Mr. Vander Hoek. — Did you get the same results in winter as
in summer?

Mr. Neher. — We used the same materials in summer as in
winter, but I do not think any man can say he got just exactly
the same results.

Mr. Rockwood. — Do you use hot or cold water?

Mr. Neher. — We use hot water in winter. We find that with
a 10 per cent, solution of salt in hot water, the concrete will not
freeze for 5 or 6 hours. This gives us time to fill the forms before
covering them up and heating with salamanders.

Mr. Norton. — Did any of the concrete freeze?

Mr. Neher. — Yes, some little did freeze on top. This we
capped off.

282 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Mr. Knighton. — What do you consider the best method to
follow in leaving off work where you expect to begin next day ?

Mr. Neher. — So far as I am concerned, I do not like to leave
one day's work uncompleted ; but when we do, we generally insert
twisted bars placed vertically, to give us union with the suc-
ceeding work.

Mr. Knighton. — Have you built any arches ?

Mr. Neher. — I have not. Quite a number have been built
in the South for railroads.

Mr. Diehl. — I would move you, Mr. President, that a vote
of thanks be extended to Mr. Neher for his kindness in addressing
us this evening. Seconded by Mr. Tutton. Adopted unanimously
by a rising vote.

OBITUARY. 283

OBITUARY.

Sherman Emmett Burke.

Member of the Engineers' Club of Cincinnati.

Mr. Burke was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, February 17, 1872,
where he attended the public schools in his youth and later was a
student of Mt. Auburn Military School and Franklin Preparatory
School.

During the spring and summer of 1890 Mr. Burke was em-
ployed on the location and construction of the Middletown and
Cincinnati Railroad, of which his father, Major M. D. Burke, was
chief engineer. In the latter part of the year Mr. Burke entered
the preparatory department of the Ohio State University, and
matriculated with the class of 1895 in the course of civil engineer-
ing.

In his college career Mr. Burke was a charter member of
Beta Nu Chapter of Sigma Nu Fraternity, and captain of Company
D of the university battalion, where he distinguished himself by
winning the prize sword in 1894.

In June, 1894, Mr. Burke accepted a situation in the engineer-
ing department of the Cincinnati, Portsmouth and Virginia Rail-
road, under the direction of Mr. W. B. Ruggles, chief engineer,
where he remained until March, 1895, when he entered the service
of the Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern Railway Company as
engineer.

In June, 1895, Mr. Burke entered the service of the Penn-
sylvania Company, and was assigned to the Newport and Cincinnati
bridge corps, under the direction of Mr. George U. Engle. Mr.
Burke remained with the Newport and Cincinnati bridge corps until
the completion of the substructure, after which he accompanied Mr.
Engle to Indiana, where they were engaged in survey work, and
later became part of the chief engineer's office force at Pittsburg.

The energy and fidelity displayed by Mr. Burke soon attracted
the attention of the officers of the Pennsylvania Company, who
evinced their appreciation by making him assistant engineer of
maintenance of way of the Richmond division of the Pennsylvania
lines July 1, 1897.

On July 1, 1899, Mr. Burke was transferred to the Cleveland,
Akron and Columbus Railway, of which he was made engineer of
maintenance of way November 1, 1899, remaining in that capacity
until his death.

On October 17, 1900, while accompanying the general man-
ager's inspection party, Mr. Burke received accidental injuries

284 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

which resulted in his death. Mr. Burke leaves a widow and
daughter to mourn their loss, and a host of friends who regret with
deep feeling that a promising and useful career was cut short by
his untimely death.

J. A. Rabbe,
J. A, Lilly.

Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.

A

SSOCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Organized 1881.

Vol. XXVI. MAY, 1901. No. 5.

This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or for
the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.

THE SOFTENING OF FEED WATER FOR BOILERS.

By Louis Bendit, Member of the Engineers'" Club of St. Louis.

[Read before the Club, April 3, 1901.*]

It certainly is unnecessary in this advancing scientific age, and
before this society, to prove the facts that nearly all waters that are
found either in streams or beneath the surface of the earth are im-
pure or that water purification is essential, whether for dietetic or
manufacturing purposes. This is conceded by every engineer.

In this paper we shall consider only the best method for the
treatment of feed water for boilers.

All natural water contains two classes of impurities, viz., or-
ganic and inorganic, either in suspension or in solution. The or-
ganic impurities are of vegetable and animal origin, and are taken
up either in flowing over the ground or by direct contamination,
such as the addition of sewage from cities or refuse from manu-
facturing concerns. This evening we shall consider only the solu-
ble inorganic or mineral impurities, for it is these which give trouble
and cause expense when the water is used in steam boilers.

The mineral impurities in solution are the lime, magnesia, soda
and potash in combination with carbonic, sulphuric or hydro-
chloric acids, with iron, generally as a bicarbonate, and a small
amount of silica.

The soluble lime and magnesia are the impurities which make
water hard. The hardness of water is measured in degrees, as
parts per thousand, or in grains per gallon. All salts of lime and

^Manuscript received May 27, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
27

286 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

magnesia are figured to their chemical equivalent of lime carbonate,
and each part per 100,000 is called a degree of hardness. Thus, we
say a water has a hardness of 10 or 50, as the case may be, meaning
that when all lime and magnesia salts are figured to the lime car-
bonate, the water contains 10 or 50 parts per 100,000. The hard-
ness of water may be measured in a very simple manner by means
of a standard solution of soap in alcohol, the strength of the solution
being tested by means of a solution of calcium chloride of known
strength. Soap will not lather or form suds with water until all the
lime and magnesia are precipitated, for the principal action of soap
is that of softening water, and, in making the test, we take ad-
vantage of this fact by adding the standard soap solution to known
volume of water, until a permanent lather is formed.

A part of the carbonates of lime and magnesia may be removed
from water by boiling, also a portion of the lime sulphate, if it is
present in considerable amount. The number of degrees of hard-
ness removed by boiling is called temporary hardness ; that remain-
ing, permanent hardness. From this it will be readily seen why
exhaust steam heaters fail to complete the work, for, at best, they
can remove only the temporary hardness, leaving chlorides, nitrates
and the greater proportion of the sulphates to pass on into the
boiler, where scaling and corrosion take place. Of course it is
impossible to use an exhaust steam heater to purify water in con-
densing plants. When hard water is used in steam boilers, the heat
drives off the carbonic acid, precipitating the carbonates of lime and
magnesia. This takes place at 21 2° F. for an interval of two or
three hours.

Furthermore, the continual evaporation of water in a boiler
concentrates the impurities, until finally a point of saturation is
reached. This, combined with the heat of the high-pressure steam,
causes a precipitation of the sulphates of lime and magnesia to-
gether with some of the more soluble impurities.

These are called the scale-forming impurities, because a crust
or scale forms or accumulates wherever the hot water comes in
contact with the metal. This scale is built up of thin layers of pre-
cipitated lime, magnesia, silica and iron. On the inside of the
boilers it covers the tubes and plates, generally being thickest where
the circulation of the water is least.

The consequences are generally serious, because the scale is
a non-conductor of heat ; carbonates of magnesia having a rela-
tive value of from 0.67 to 0.76 as non-conducting materials (felt or
wood being taken as 1 ) . It is claimed that the conducting power
of iron is about thirtv times that of saturated scales.

THE SOFTENING OF FEED WATER FOR BOILERS. 287

\\ hile it is true that the well-known "Tables of Loss of Fuel
Due to Scale," printed and circulated by manufacturers of scale
preventatives, are very much exaggerated and probably entirely in-
correct, still it has been proved by practical experiments that a
metal is heated to much higher temperature in boiling water if it
is covered with a non-conducting material than if the metal is clean.

If a boiler is heavily incrusted with lime, there is great
danger of overheating the metal, because the water is not in im-
mediate contact with the steel and cannot carry off or absorb the
heat from the plates. The boiler, being under pressure, the over-
heating of the metal results in a stretching of the plate, forming a
"bag," or the metal may blister and crystallize, and this will very
much reduce its tensile strength, rendering the boiler unsafe.

This means that repairs are necessary. Even in cases where
the metal does not get hot enough to bag or blister, it expands un-
equally, destroying the seams and joints between the several parts
of the boiler, thus causing leaks, which in time become serious
enough to put the boiler out of use.

Even where no disastrous results follow, much labor upon the
part of the engineer in charge is necessary to keep the scale from
accumulating. The scale is usually very hard, and can be removed
only after considerable hard work. The continual hammering and
chipping necessary for this is injurious to the metal, and, even if the
cleaner's intentions are the best, it is impossible to reach and clean
all parts of the return tubular boiler.

HEATERS AND MECHANICAL PURIFIERS.

The boilers are not the only part of the steam-generating
plant affected by the impurities of the water. A deposit of a part
of the carbonates of lime, magnesia and iron takes place as soon as
the temperature begins to rise, which is when the water reaches the
exhaust steam heaters. The first heaters built consisted of a coil or
a number of pipes enclosed in a metal housing. The water was
pumped through the inside of the pipe, and the exhaust steam in
the chambers surrounding it heated the water. Used in places
where the water contained only a small amount of lime and mag-
nesia carbonates, no trouble was experienced ; but when this type of
heaters was tried to heat waters containing a large amount of
lime carbonates, as do our western waters, these heaters were ren-
dered useless in a very short time. The water passages through
the pipe became clogged, and no water could be forced into the
boiler.

Because of the fact that the carbonates are partially precipi-

288 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

tated by the heat of the exhaust steam, heater manufacturers have
called their exhaust steam heaters "purifiers," and have so modified
them that they can be readily cleaned.

The same trouble arises in plants using economizers, or heaters
through which the water passes after it leaves the exhaust steam
heaters and before it reaches the boilers. These get their heat from
the waste gases of the furnaces, and it is very important that their
surfaces be cleaned and kept so, without involving great labor and
expense.

The exhaust steam heater, as purifier," has helped the trou-
ble only in part, because the sulphates, which form the hardest scale,
are not precipitated at all at the comparatively low temperature of
the water from an exhaust steam heater ; for that reason they pass
on to the boiler and collect on its surfaces. To remedy this, a
second tank, like a boiler, filled full of pans or shelves and heated
with live steam from the boiler, is tried.

Into this receptacle all the water passes before it finally reaches
the boiler. By carrying this heater at boiler pressure, the water
becomes hot enough to start the precipitation of its sulphates. This
is not an instantaneous process, but a gradual one, and it continues
after the water has reached the boiler. Of course the efficiency, in
all mechanical purifiers depending upon heat, is proportional to the
length of time during which water is subjected to the heating or
purifying process. In practice the water is never thoroughly puri-
fied in exhaust or live steam purifiers, because the heater is usually
so small that the water passes through it in too short a time to com-
plete the precipitating process.

Sulphate of lime is said to be completely insoluble at tempera-
tures above 3000. This is true, provided there is a certain amount
of it in the water.

Analyses of water from the blow-off valves of boilers show that
the sulphate of lime in solution is as high as 25 grains per gallon,
even when the temperature is far above 3000. From this it is evident
that it is due to the concentration as well as the heat that the sul-
phate of lime precipitates in the boilers, forming scale. Concen-
tration does not take place either in exhaust or in live steam heaters.

The introduction of soda ash into the feed water in an open
heater has been tried, and, where the character of the water is not
bad, this method has helped somewhat ; but where the water con-
tains the average amount of impurities, it is of little or no advan-
tage, and, as far as we can discern, the soda ash might just as well
be fed to the boiler direct, for the average heater is so small that it
is impossible for the precipitation to be completed then.

THE SOFTEXIXG OF FEED WATER FOR BOILERS. 289

To show that this is true, we will take water of an average
condition, say 14 grains of carbonate of lime to the gallon, and 1000
horse power boiler plant evaporating 100,000 gallons of water in
twenty-four hours for a six-days' run. That means about 7,500,000
grains or 1000 pounds, or 5 barrels, of carbonate of lime. Of
course, no 1000 horse power heater ever had that quantity of residue
in it at one time, because it cannot get all the lime of the water
in that way; and, were the heater allowed to run long enough to
accumulate that amount, it would become clogged so that the water
could find no egress to the feed pump.

Except in the case of waters low in scale-forming matter, this
method is attended with many objections.

Water- Softening and Purifying Plant, Clark's Process.

At the Crawford, McGregor & Canby Company's Works, Dayton, O.

First. There is the mechanical problem of disposing of the vol-
uminous precipitate which hard waters give up when they are prop-
erly treated.

Xote the above that even 14 grains of carbonates per gallon
mean 1000 pounds at the end of a week's run of a 1000 horse power
plant, and this does not include the sulphates or chloride precipi-
tated by the soda ash.

Second. The heater, of course, can be cleaned advantageously
only when the plant is shut down. Carbonates precipitated by heat
cannot be blown from a pipe, as can those precipitated by a chemical
treatment.

290 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Third. The purifiers operate upon the continuous process plan,
feeding a soda-ash solution into the raw water ; the result is that
the feed pump fills with precipitated lime, and this either decreases
the supply or shuts it off completely. ' If larger feed pipes are used,
too much ash goes to the boiler, and the water foams. The aver-
age engineer has too much to do to nurse the feeds, so that they
are out of order about half the time, and no better results are ob-
tained than with a plain exhaust heater.

In the above-mentioned iooo horse power installation, with the
use of a water-softening plant of the intermittent type, the cost of
precipitating the carbonate of lime would be less than $2.50 per week,
which certainly is much less than the expense of removing 1000
pounds of lime from an open heater, to say nothing of the important
fact that the open heater would fail to accomplish the desideratum,
whereas the water-softening plant would accomplish it.

Innumerable other mechanical devices have been tried to over-
come this trouble, such as skimmers, surface blow-off, etc. Not-
withstanding all these efforts, scale continued to form on the plates
and the tubes of boilers. There seemed to be another way, and
that was to supply to the hot water in the boiler itself a remedy
which would keep the scale from hardening.

BOILER COMPOUNDS.

Mixtures known as "boiler compounds" have been used for
years. These are generally composed of soda in combination with
seme organic acid, such as tannic acid, acetic acid, etc. All of these
acids are said to corrode the metal and to be positively injurious to
the boiler. Almost everything has, at one time or another, been
put into a boiler to keep the scale soft, such as oak bark and shav-
ings, because of the tannic acid they contain ; distillery slops, on ac-
count of their acetic acid ; potatoes, corn, etc., for their starch, leather,
slippery elm and manure, for the gelatinous matter; molasses and'
sugar, because of the saccharates of lime formed. Innumerable
other substances have been used without judgment or reason.

Prof. Robt. H. Thurston, in his "Manual of Steam Boilers,"
page 463, says that logwood, hemlock and other woods are some-
time employed, but are apt to injure the iron of the boilers, as may
acetic or other acids contained in the various saccharine matters,
which also make the lime sulphate scale more troublesome than:
when clean. Organic matter should never be used.

From a chemical standpoint the most efficient boiler com-
pounds are trisodium phosphate and fluoride of sodium. With
these, when the water is heated, both carbonates and sulphates of

THE SOFTENING OF FEED WATER FOR BOILERS. 291

lime and magnesia are precipitated as phosphates or fluorides, which
do not harden upon the tubes and shell. The principal objection
to them is the cost of using them in quantities sufficient to remove
enough of the scale-forming matter to be of benefit. There are
two reasons why they are expensive. The chemical equivalent of
these compounds makes it necessary to use one pound of trisodium
phosphate to precipitate either 0.9 pound of carbonate of lime, or
0.77 pound of carbonate of magnesia. One pound of fluoride of
sodium is required to precipitate 1.19 pounds of lime carbonates or
1.6 pounds of lime sulphates; and its cost, at present writing
(1901), is about two and one-half times as much as that of the tri-
sodium phosphate.

One pound of caustic lime will precipitate 1.78 pounds of lime
carbonate, or nearly twice as much as will trisodium phosphate,
while its cost per pound is about one-eighteenth as much, or it will
remove one and one-half times as much carbonate of lime as will
fluoride of sodium, which costs about forty times as much per
pound.

Therefore, with the same expenditure of money, caustic lime
will precipitate about thirty-six times as much carbonate of lime as
will trisodium phosphate, and about sixty times as much as will
fluoride of sodium.

Because of the cost, the amount of either trisodium phosphate
or fluoride of sodium put in boilers is but a small percentage of
the true amount necessary for complete precipitation of the scale-
forming matter. That part which is converted into a phosphate or
fluoride of lime or magnesia, mixes with the heat-precipitated car-
bonates, and mechanically prevents them from getting very hard,
although they do not or cannot prevent the remainder of the lime
carbonates from precipitating by heat.

Another reason why the large amount of these compounds
necessary for complete precipitation cannot be used is because too
frequent blowing off is required in order to prevent the water in
the boilers from becoming saturated with soda by the continual con-
centration of the impurities and the continual addition of the com-
pound.

The vegetable boiler compounds consist of sugar and tannins
mixed with slippery elm or powdered wood pulp to furnish a soluble
starchy substance. The tannins convert the carbonates into sac-
charates, which are blown out. One pound of tannic acid is re-
quired to precipitate one-seventh of a pound of carbonate of lime,
and one pound of saccharic acid will precipitate about five-eighth of
a pound of sulphate of lime.

292 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Comparing these chemical compounds with a proper water-
softening treatment, it is readily seen what a large amount of wholly-
unnecessary foreign matter must be put into a boiler in order to
form a small amount of lime sludge which will not harden on the
tubes and plates, even if no other objections arose.

It should be clear to anyone why boiler compounds fail to
keep a boiler free from scale except in waters containing a very
small amount of incrustating solids, such as some surface waters
from rivers, lakes, ponds, etc.

Kerosene oil, which is used extensively, is entirely mechanical
in its operation. It does not convert any of the scale-forming
material into a non-hardening condition, because there is no chemi-
cal change ; but owing to its light, volatile nature, it penetrates a
porous scale and tends to disintegrate it. When the boiler is cold,
the rotten scale partially breaks off from the metal, and is removed
when the boiler is opened. It is the appearance of the rotten scale
which makes it seem as if the boiler must be clean, whereas actually
they are quite dirty, for but a small portion of the total amount has
been removed. The volatile nature of this material prevents its
use in any place where a pure steam is required, and it should never
be used where a steam-heating apparatus is employed, because the
volatile hydrocarbon distilled causes leaks at joints, fittings and
valves.

WATER SOFTENING.

The process known as water softening, based upon the exact
quantity and chemical character of the impurities, offers the relief
desired. It is a method based upon accurate chemical knowledge,
and it does not depend upon the change or imagination of any man
to prove its efficiency. A chemical process involves an expense
due to the reagents used ; therefore, in order to keep down the cost
to a minimum, only the cheapest and most efficient reagents can be
employed.

The Clark process of precipitating carbonates of lime and mag-
nesia by means of caustic lime is undoubtedly the cheapest chemical
method; that, combined with soda-ash treatment for the sulphates
and chlorides, makes it possible to get a clear feed water low
enough in scale-forming to fulfill all requirements.

True water softening is an exact process. By this is meant
that the exact amount of caustic lime must be put into the water to
remove all the carbonates of lime and magnesia present; and the
exact amount of soda ash used to decompose all the sulphate of lime
and chloride of magnesia. No more, no less.

THE SOFTENING OF FEED WATER FOR BOILERS. 293

If it is desired to run at the lowest possible cost for operation,
the method of treating the water and the apparatus used must
be so simple that a man can operate it who has no knowledge of
chemistry, and of whom nothing but mechanical work is required.

The apparatus which has been designed to accomplish this may
he divided into two classes, viz., the intermittent and the continuous.

The apparatus designed for the continuous process consists
usually of a steel settling tank, in which the water, after the addi-
tion of lime and soda water, is made to flow through spaces between
series of intercepting plates in order to effect a mixture of the
reagents with the water, which then passes to the bottom of the tank
through a pipe, and thence rises again nearly to the top, where it
overflows in a continuous stream.

Exact and uniform treatment is difficult to obtain, especially in
our turbid western waters.

First. Because the amount of caustic lime or of soda ash dis-
solved in a gallon of solution may vary.

Second. Because the change of pressure may vary the amount
of raw water supply, changing the whole character of the effluent.

Third. Because it is a difficult matter to keep uniform the
amount of the chemical solution flowing through the small orifice
into the raw water.

Fourth. The interior pipes or openings are likely to become
incrusted, causing a variation which effects the results.

Fifth. Because no machine yet built will regulate the amount
of lime and soda in the same proportion as the amount of raw water
flowing through the machine, when the demands are irregular. At
certain hours of the day (during the peak of the load) the demand
for feed water is often triple that of other times.

The intermittent system consists of two or more settling tanks,
provided with agitators in order to thoroughly mix the lime and
soda with the water in one tank, after which the water is allowed
to settle while the water in the other is being treated or being drawn
from it. For drawing off the clear water, use is made of a pipe on
a movable joint near the bottom of the tank, its other end being sup-
ported near the surface by a float. By this means clear water may
be drawn by the time the precipitate has settled a few feet. In this
machine water can be softened with great accuracy and uniformity.

This plan is the original one, and for certain demands is the
cheapest. The principal objection to it is the ground room it
occupies. The necessity for using very large tanks has been over-
come by using a filter to mechanically remove the floating lime
sludge, which does not completely settle in the time allowed in small

294 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

tanks. This plan is in no sense an obsolete one, for plants are being
installed at the present time in England and in this country among
the largest manufacturing concerns, and for use in city water works.

To some the settling-tank plant may seem crude in comparison
with the more elaborate plants working upon the continuous pro-
cess. The expensive continuous water-softening plants are not nec-
essary for good softening, and generally they are more difficult for
the average man to operate satisfactorily.

On account of the expense of installing the plant, the continu-
ous process is the only method which can be used where very large
quantities of water are to be softened ; that is, in plants furnishing
two million gallons a day or more. In order to get satisfactory
results from a continuous process water-softening plant, it should
be in charge of a man who is expert in handling such apparatus, or
where the services of a chemist are constantly available.

Among the many advantages of the intermittent settling-tank
plant are :

First. The absence of automatic chemical feeds.

Second. It can be operated by the engineer or his assistant,
without interfering with their regular work.

Third. A constant quantity of raw water is collected, to be
treated with a uniform amount of chemical reagents. By this plan
an excess or insufficiency of chemicals is avoided, and, therefore, a
uniform character of softened water is furnished, while the sim-
plicity of the apparatus enables an unskilled workman to obtain as
good results as an expert chemist.

Fourth. The mechanical stirring, resulting in an agitation of
raw water with the chemicals, insures an intimate mixture, and
very materially hastens and soon completes the chemical reaction.

Fifth. The sludge of previous purification, which has settled
to the bottom of the tanks, is mixed with the Water by the action
of the mechanical stirring device. This insoluble matter, moving
in the water, gathers together the new, finely divided precipitate of
lime and magnesia. This aids the chemical reaction, and hastens
the settling and clarifying of the water.

Sixth. The sludge, collected in the settling tanks, relieves the
filter beds, so a filter can be run five or six times as long without
cleaning as would be the case were all sludge intercepted by the
filters.

Seventh. Inasmuch as these settling tanks do not usually
require washing or emptying oftener than once a week, the account
of waste water, required for cleaning or removing of sludge, is a
very small percentage of the total amount purified.

THE SOFTENING OF FEED WATER FOR BOILERS.

295

Eighth. The water must stand for some time in order to get
a complete chemical reaction between the soluble impurities of the
-water and the chemicals added to it. Every chemist understands

H
K

H

o"
U

b-

that no chemical reaction is instantaneous. If the lime and mag-
nesia are not completely removed in the purifying apparatus, they
are sure to precipitate in the pipes, heaters and boilers.

296 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Ninth. The perfect quiet of the water gives an opportunity
for complete settling, and renders the unfiltered water clearer than
that from any other apparatus not using niters, or that from exhaust
steam heaters in which crude filters are placed.

Tenth. The operation of this apparatus is the method fol-
lowed by a chemist in a laboratory, but on a larger scale and with
minor modifications to suit conditions.

Eleventh. This arrangement of two settling tanks permits an
accurate daily record to be kept of the amount of the water evap-
orated in the boilers. This feature will be appreciated by careful
and economical managers of large steam plants who are watching
their coal piles.

The tanks are made of wood, brick or steel plates, and are gen-
erally cylindrical. The size of these reservoirs depends upon the
quantity of water required per 24 hours, and the" condition under
which they are operated.

For plants requiring up to 4000 gallons per hour, we advocate
two tanks, each having a capacity equal to six hours' supply. In
plants with 8000 gallons per hour, we use two tanks, each having
four hours' supply, and in all sizes above 8000 gallons hourly
capacity, we use two tanks, each having a two hours' supply.

The two-hour tanks require more frequent attention, but these
may be placed in charge of a boy, who can operate them, under the
supervision of the chief engineer, with as good results as a man.

They are filled alternately with hard water: The chemical
reagents are mixed in a small tank placed upon the top of the
settling tanks, and are washed into the water while the tank is fill-
ing. A mechanical stirring device, consisting of a paddle revolved
by suitable gearing, and operated by hand or liquid power, depend-
ing upon the size, mixes the hard water and the reagents together,
at the same time stirring up from the bottom the lime sludge of the
previous purification. This floats in the water, hastening the chem-
ical reaction, and causes the new, finely divided carbonate of lime
precipitate to gather into large flocculent or woolly flakes, heavy
enough to settle quickly as soon as the water stops moving.

This paddle-stirring device is the simplest and the cheapest in
the market. With reasonable care it cannot get out of order; it
does not have to be cleaned to keep it in working condition, and
does not require a large quantity of high-pressure steam to operate
it. It should be run by a belt, carried from a shaft in the build-
ing, or by a small, independent steam engine or electric motor.

The power required varies from 1 to 3 horse power, so that the
amount of steam consumed for this power is extremely small. By

THE SOFTENING OF FEED WATER FOR BOILERS. 297

exhausting the steam from the stirring engine into the coil pipe in
the settling tank, the water becomes slightly heated. In cold
weather this prevents it from freezing, and at all times hastens the
chemical reaction.

The softened water is taken out of the tank by means of a
hinged, floating outlet pipe, arranged to rise and fall with the level
of the water, so that the clearest water is drawn from the top of the
tank. By this arrangement a deep tank has all the advantage of
a shallow one as a settling basin, because the water from the top
carries the least amount of floating lime sludge into the filter beds,
and in that way the filters can run the longest possible time without
being cleaned, the time varying from three to seven days.

Inlet connections, through which to fill the tanks and wash the
pipe connections, and to wash lime sludge from tanks, are placed
in the bottom.

The washing of the settling tanks needs only to be done when
the lime sludge becomes deep enough to interfere with the settling.
The lime, once precipitated, does not redissolve in water. These
tanks are cleaned once in four to six days, depending upon the
amount of sludge collected. All that is necessary is to open the
wash valve and start the stirring device to mix up the lime sludge,
which is soft enough to run readily through pipe.

In small plants the sheet-iron chemical tank is placed on top of
the settling reservoirs ; in large tanks, at the bottom. In the latter
case, a small centrifugal pump is used to pump the chemical solu-
tion into the tanks.

By using this simple plan, the chemicals are partially mixed
with the hard water. The mixture is completed by the revolving
paddles of the stirring device, which is started as soon as the filling
of the tanks begins, and runs until the tank is full.

When pressure filters are used, the settling tanks are placed
about three feet above the ground, but when open or gravity filters
are used, the tanks are elevated about eight feet above the ground,
or the filters must be lowered to allow water to flow into them from
the settling tanks by gravity.

The instructions given for operating these plants are extremely
simple, so that any man of average intelligence has no difficulty
in understanding and using them.

When an old boiler is first fed with softened water, it must be
opened every week until the old heavy scale is removed, otherwise
there is great danger of the loose scale collecting on the fire sheets
and burning the iron or causing a bag.

298 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The water does not foam, provided the blow-off cock is used
regularly, thus preventing a concentration of those impurities which
cannot be removed by any purifying process or apparatus. The
water has a less tendency to pit or corrode the metal than hard
water, and a very small amount of combined carbonic acid. Its
mineral acids, hydrochloric and sulphuric, are combined with soda,
for which they have a strong affinity. The water is either slightly
alkaline or neutral, but never acid.

This apparatus will render the most turbid waters clear,
because the large amount of sediment found in some waters, which
is so difficult to filter by a continuous-process plant, is, in this
apparatus, the means by which the water is cleared. That is, the
mud or sludge of previous purification helps to remove that of
the new raw water, and at the same time it does not deposit on the
filter beds, and thus necessitate frequent washing.

TESTING THE WATER.

Careful chemical analyses have shown that all waters vary in
the amount of mineral impurities at different seasons of the year.
This is especially true of surface waters from rivers, lakes, etc.,
but even upon waters from deep wells, the amount of rainfall has
a marked influence.

For this reason, and also because the tanks may be filled to
different levels, it is necessary to test the water in order to deter-
mine whether the correct amount of caustic lime is added to the
hard water. To do this, two chemical solutions are used: one to
show when not enough caustic lime has been added; one to show
when an excess has been used.

We have proved by experience that there is no difficulty at all
in the successful use of these test solutions on the part of any care-
ful and reasonably intelligent man. The change of water is not a
daily one, but rather one that takes place from week to week, and,
by testing the water once every day or two, it can be kept uniformly
satisfactory.

There is no satisfactory test that can be employed outside of
a laboratory to determine the correct amount of soda ash, but a
slight excess of soda ash is not objectionable, but rather beneficial
for water used in steam boilers. Hence, when the water is used
for that purpose, it is not necessary to test the water for this soda
ash. All that is then required is to use enough.

Should any scale form in the boilers, its appearance and char-
acter will indicate, to an observant man, whether it is the sulphate
or the carbonate of lime, and from this he should know whether it

THE SOFTENING OF FEED WATER FOR BOILERS. 299

is necessary to increase the amount of soda ash, and whether he is
using enough of lime.

Equally important, with the selection of an efficient boiler, is
the character of the feed water, and its treatment, so as to maintain
the original efficiency that modern boilers give when in prime con-
dition. Therefore, when a new boiler plant is installed, and when
more than one source of water is available, it will certainly pay,
in a majority of cases, to investigate each water, and so determine
which is best for boiler use, and which will most readily yield to
treatment and thus prove the cheapest.

In the city of St. Louis, where not less than ten cents is paid for
each 1000 gallons of water used, and in other cities where a 50 per
cent, greater tax is collected, it will, in manv cases, pay to sink wells
and treat the water thus obtained, which will seldom cost, for treat-
ment and pumping, one-quarter of the price of city water.

COST OF SOFTENING WATER.

All carbonates of lime and magnesia, and iron are removed by
caustic lime, which is also precipitated and removed along with the
original impurities. By means of soda ash, sulphates of lime and
magnesia, or chlorides of lime and magnesia are converted into
carbonates of lime and magnesia, and hydrate of magnesia, which
are precipitated, while the soda unites with the sulphuric and
hydrochloric acids, forming the neutral sulphate of soda and
chloride of sodium, which are soluble in water.

The caustic lime used must be as pure a calcium oxide as it is
possible to obtain. A "fat" lime is generally of this character. A
high percentage of magnesia, oxide of iron or silica, is objection-
able.

The cost of treatment of water varies from one-third cents
per 1000 gallons up, depending upon the character of the water.

The advantages of this method of feed-water purification are
self-evident.

First. The water is softened while cold, and before it enters
the boiler room; therefore, the feed pipes, exhaust and steam
heaters and economizers are kept practically free from calcareous
deposit.

Second. The softened water contains a very small amount of
incrustating matter. Therefore the boiler can be operated many
times as long without cleaning and does not collect a hard scale.

Third. When it is necessary to wash out a boiler it can be
done for about one-third of what it cost before the water-softening
plant was put in.

300

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Fourth. The purifying apparatus can be cleaned advantage-
ously while the steam plant is in operation, thus saving Sunday
work or overtime.

Table Showing Amount of Impurities Removed from Water by Chemicals
Used in Softening.

Will Remove Following Amount in Pounds:

One Pound of the
Following Chemical

At Price in

Cents per

Pound.

Carbon-
ate
of Lime.

Carbon-
ate

of Mag-
nesia.

Sulphate
of Lime.

Sulphate
of Mag-
nesia.

Chloride
of Lime.

Chloride
of Mag-
nesium.

Caustic lime, 98%

.88-I.15

i- 75

i-5

1.28

113

I.04

0.9

Fifth. The scale-forming matter in the water is reduced to
that condition in which it can be gotten rid of, at the least possible
expense ; a small fraction of the cost of cleaning heaters or boilers.

Sixth. No boiler compound is required.

Seventh. An increased economy resulting from clean boilers.

Eighth. Less water used for cleaning, and less coal used for
heating up the cold boiler and brickwork, due to less frequent
cleanings.

Table of Cost of Precipitating iooo Grains of Different Impurities with
Different Reagents.

Reagent.

Cost of Re-
agent per
Pound.

Carbonate
of Lime.

Carbonate
of Mag-
nesia.

Sulphate
of Lime.

Chloride of
Magnesia.

Soda ash, 58%

3-ioc.

3C-
5c.

IOC.

5c

.0255c.

.0296c.

.167c.

0.243c.

.3570c.

.7850c.

1 . 2000c.

4-5750C.

.4070c.
.928c.
1. 430c.

5-475C

Trisodium phosphate

.576c.
.883c.

0.831c.
1.26c.

Fluoride of sodium

Ninth. The saving in repairs.

Tenth. The increased safety to life and property by decreas-
ing the danger of explosion, either of boilers or of high-pressure
heaters.

Water from which the incrustating solids and mud are removed
before it reaches the boilers or heaters, so that not over 1 grain of
lime carbonate and 1^ grain of magnesia hydrate are found in a
gallon of water, is in such a degree of softness, that not more than
a "paper" scale will accumulate on the plates and tubes of steam
boilers in six months of constant use, and but a small amount of soft
deposit upon the pans of the exhaust steam heaters.

THE SOFTENING OF FEED WATER FOR BOILERS. 301

Tins is the condition to which a hard water can be brought by
means of the Clark process. The figures show a plant on this sys-
tem, erected in the works of the Crawford, McGregor & Canby
Co., at Dayton, Ohio.

The following are analyses of well water, before and after
softening in this apparatus :

ANALYSES OF WATER, BEFORE AND AFTER SOFTENING BY
THE CLARK PROCESS, AT THE LOUISVILLE ELECTRIC
LIGHT CO., LOUISVILLE, KY.

Impurities Given in Grains per U. S. Gallon.

Raw Softened

Water. Water.

Silica 1. 10 .40

Oxide of iron and aluminum 30 .10

Carbonate of lime 16.78 .80

Carbonate of magnesia 1.89 ....

Hydrate of magnesia 1.04

Sulphate of magnesia 9.90

Chloride of sodium 8.40 6.09

Sulphate of soda 6.00 ....

Total 34.56 18.33

Take, for example, Michigan Lake water, the cost of softening
which is 0.34 cents per 1000 gallons.

For a 100 horse power boiler, operating 12 hours and evaporat-
ing 4050 gallons, the cost of softening is 1.4 cents per day ; cost per
year (350 days), $4.90.

With Lake Erie water the cost of softening is 0.80 cents per
1000 gallons ; cost per day per horse power, 3.25 cents ; cost per
year, $11.38.

DEEP WELL WATER FROM SOUTHERN OHIO.
Impurities Given in Grains per U. S. Gallon.

Before After

Softening. Softening.

Oxide of iron 630 ....

Carbonate of lime 10.768 1.450

Carbonate of magnesia 4-777

Hydrate of magnesia .870

Sulphate of lime 1725 '• ....

Sulphate of soda 1.802

Chloride of sodium 2.080 2.080

Total residue 19.981 grains. 6.172 grains.

Hardness (Clark) 17.5 degrees. 3.0 degrees.

Theoretical soap-destroying power,

per 1000 gallons of water 26.000 pounds. 4.500 pounds.

Cost of chemicals to remove temporary and permanent hardness, $5.02
per million gallons.

Cost of chemicals to remove hardness only, $4.35 per million gallons.

Where formerly it was necessary to open boilers for cleaning
once in ten days or two weeks, and then the cleaning consisted in
scraping, hammering and chipping the scale from the tubes, by the
28

302 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

use of softened feed water, a boiler will run from twice to four
times as long, and nothing but a stream of water from a hose is
necessary to clean the soft white sludge from the metal ; this
requires but a fraction of the time used for cleaning by the old
method.

An exhaust steam heater will run about twenty-four times as
long before it has an equal deposit on the pans. Where econo-
mizers are used, the softened water keeps these clean for the same
reason.

When used in boilers heavily scaled, this softened water has a
tendency to remove the old crusts, because no new deposit of lime
and magnesia forms over the old crusts, thus cementing it to the
metal while the boiler is hot. The unequal expansion of the metal
and of the non-conducting crust loosens the latter, and it falls from
the tubes and plates. The action is practically the same as that
noticed when rain water or distilled water is used in boilers.

ECONOMY IN OPERATION OF 2000 H. P. STEAM PLANT, DUE TO
USING WATER-SOFTENING PLANT.
Cost of Operation without Water- Softening Plant.
Cleaning five 400 H. P. boilers, each once in 2 weeks, 1,30

cleanings per year, at $20 $2,600.00

130 tons of coal, at $1.30 per ton, to get steam on boilers

cooled by cleaning 195.00

Yearly extra repairs on five boilers, due to bad water. .. . 150.00
Boiler compound for five boilers, per year 300.00

$3,245-00

Cost of Operating with Water- Softening Plant.

Yearly cost of chemical reagents to treat 60,000 pounds of

water per hour, at Y% cent per 1000 gallons $551.88

Yearly interest 8 per cent., and depreciation 10 per cent.,

on $4500 720.00

Yearly labor of operating plant, at 90 cents per day 328.50

Washing five 400 H. P. boilers, each once per month, or 60

washings per year, at $8 480.00

60 tons of coal at $1.50 per ton, to get steam on boilers

cooled by washing 90.00

2,170.38

Saving by using softened water (about 24 per cent.

on $4500) * $1,074.62

Coal Economy.

2000 H. P. boilers evaporate 60,000 pounds of water per
hour, or 1,440,000 gallons of water per 24 hours. Evap-
oration without purifier at 10 to 1 equals 144,000 gal-
lons; 72 tons of coal per 24 hours, at $1.50 per
ton, = $108 per day, or, per year $39,420.00

If evaporation were increased to 10.10 pounds of water
per pound of coal, due to having boilers free from
scale, 1,440,000 pounds of water should be evaporated
each 24 hours with 71.28 tons of coal, at $1.50 per

ton, a yearly cost of 39,025.8c

. . ■ 394-20

Estimated saving about 32.6 per cent, on $4500 invest-
ment $1,468.82

THE SOFTENING OF FEED WATER FOR BOILERS.

303

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304 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

If the length of time between boiler washings can be increased
eight or ten times over what was necessary before softened water
was used and regular blowing down put in practice, and if it is
found unnecessary to use scrapers or tube-cleaning machines at all,
because no scale accumulates or builds up ; if open exhaust steam
heaters can be run from six months to one year without cleaning;
if no live steam purifiers are required, and no boiler compound used,
then by the use of softened water the percentage of idle capital is
decreased, and the labor of cleaning boilers, heaters and purifiers is
decreased.

A well-known engineer recently remarked : "We are far behind
European steam users in taking advantage of the economy possible
by keeping the interior of our boilers clean and free from cor-
rosion." However, inasmuch as an increasing number of water-
softening plants is being installed and successfully operated, we will
soon lose our foreign reputation of being non-progressive in this
respect.

But it must be borne in mind that the success of a water-
softening plant depends upon the way in which it is operated.
Therefore, the element of risk attending this part of its success
should be as low as possible, and it has been demonstrated that the
operation of the intermittent type is attended with less risk than that
of any" other.

DIFFICULTIES ATTENDING PROPER CEMENT INSPECTION. 305

ON THE ENGINEERING DIFFICULTIES ATTENDING A
PROPER INSPECTION OF CEMENT.

By J. F. Coleman, Member, Louisiana Engineering Society.

[Read before the Society, April 8, 1901.*]

In the various and multiform details which make up the duty
of the engineer, a proper and intelligent inspection of the materials
which enter into the structures built under his supervision is far
from being the least.

In harnessing nature to the service of mankind he makes use
of so nearly all of the products of mine, quarry and forest, in
natural and in manufactured form, that it would be too much to
expect that any one individual member of the profession could be
qualified to pass judgment upon all of them except in a most
general way, and largely for that reason we have become sub-
divided into various branch professions ; and as the world grows on,
and we grow with it, there will naturally follow resubdivisions, so
that each class of works and materials, within certain limits, will
of necessity have to be in the care of specialists in that class.

However, there are materials so generally used in nearly all
classes of engineering work that each man of us all, in whatsoever
special branch he may be, should have a working knowledge of
them, for the reason that he is compelled from time to time to make
use of them under circumstances which frequently preclude the
possibility or feasibility of obtaining the judgment of others mort
experienced than himself. To one of these materials this paper
would direct your attention.

Cement is a building material which has been in use for so
many centuries that it may almost be said to be older than the
engineering profession. With its proper mode of manufacture this
paper has nothing to do, nor with its proper use. It would be pre-
sumptuous likewise to claim that this paper can throw new light on
the testing question. It is intended only to convey to you an idea
of the difficulties that have been and are being met by the writer in
the testing and inspection of cements, with some few statements of
what appear to him to be facts in connection therewith.

At first glance it would appear that concerning a material so
old as cement our knowledge should be absolute and our data pre-
cise, and the beginner will no doubt think such to be the case until
he has gone below the surface into the subject. After that, each
step he takes, each new piece of information gained, each experi-

*Manuscript received May 17, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

306 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

ment he makes, will but serve to make him doubtful of that which
he thought was certainty before; and the deeper his research the
less sure he will feel of his knowledge and its reliability. At least
that is the experience of the writer, who has had more or less to do
with cements for some ten or twelve years past, and who has care-
fully studied everything he could lay his hands on pertaining to this
subject for the past five years, to say nothing of some laboratory
practice.

Volumes enough to fill a large library have been written on the
testing of cements. The various European countries have so-called
"standard methods" for making tests, and we of America have also
a standard. The subject has received for years past, and is receiv-
ing now, the best attention and most earnest study of the brightest
minds in our profession in all countries. Nearly all the prominent
engineering societies on the globe have standing committees on
"cement," which make a special study of all the questions that relate
thereto, collect all the writings on the subject and from time to
time submit reports of such conclusions as may have been reached.
And yet, with all this study and research, with all the literature on
the subject from the pens of eminent engineers and others, the more
deeply the writer has gone into this subject the less certain has he
been of his conclusions or of the reliance to be placed in them, and
the more "at sea" has he felt on the subject at large.

It should be understood, of course, if it is not already apparent,
that this paper does not purport to be the work of one who lays
claim to expert knowledge on the cement question, but is rather an
expose of the doubts and tribulations of one whose practice is not
specialized in cement works particularly, and who therefore pre-
tends to only an average amount of information on this important
subject.

We all know, or can learn in very short order by reference to
any one of the numerous text-books, the chemical constituents of
the cements of the various classes. We know that the chemical
analysis of one brand of cement of a given class varies somewhat
from that of another in the same class, and that the analyses of the
various classes are sufficiently marked to define them without seri-
ous trouble. We all have a general knowledge of how cements are
manufactured, and we also know the approximate relative values
of the several classes of cements ; but there is not one of us who
does know or who can absolutely determine the value of any given
cement from a chemical analysis and a physical laboratory test
occupying a reasonable time. There seems to be no test whereby
the actual value of a cement may become known except the test of

DIFFICULTIES ATTENDING PROPER CEMENT INSPECTION. 307

usage and time, and in this respect each of us is dependent largely
on his brother professionals.

If a sample of any unknown cement, no ntatter how valuable
it may ultimately prove, be submitted to any engineer for use in an
important structure, he would doubtless decline to admit it, irrespec-
tive of its chemical analysis or physical test. There is no question
in my mind that he would be wise so to do, because of the dearth of
any positive knowledge which would enable him to determine its
value from any test that has yet been devised for laboratory use.

This lack of knowledge leads to a certain crudity in our speci-
fications. For example, we require certain "fineness" tests, "ten-
sile" tests, etc., but after these are all met by any sample of cement
which may be submitted, we are still uncertain as to the merits of
that cement unless we know that it has stood the test of usage and
time, and that the laboratory tests of the same cement in the past
have about coincided with the current test.

Cements have been manufactured that would pass the usual
specification requirements and yet be unfit for use. Our tests not
infrequently show better results for an inferior cement than for its
superior. Samples taken from the same barrel of cement and sent
to a dozen of the most accredited laboratories will show widely
varying results. Briquettes made by two different men in the same
laboratory, in as nearly the same manner as possible and from the
same sample, will show considerable variation ; and even those that
are made by the same man from the same sample and at the same
time have such a range of variation as to be bewildering to the
seeker after certain knowledge. Of course it goes without saying
that for any proper inspection of cements the engineer must be
equipped with a testing machine, sieves, molds, etc., so that he
may mold briquettes and break them as set forth in all the articles,
papers and books that have treated the subject. The trouble is that
after he shall have thus provided himself he has but opened new
difficulties and doubts for himself. I know of a case in point : A
sample was taken from packages of cement which were proposed
for use in a certain piece of work. The engineer in charge was not
personally acquainted with the brand, though he had heard of it,
and it was well recommended to him by other engineers who had
used it to their satisfaction. The cement was what is known as
"natural," the specifications for which required, among other things,
a tensile strength of 125 pounds, neat on seven-day test. The
sample tested to 225 pounds under these conditions; the twenty-
eight- day test was parallel, and the other tests set forth in the
specifications were as fully met. The cement was admitted to use,

308 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

and was incorporated into part of the work under proper and care-
ful inspection. In a short time it gave evidences of failure, and
on being exposed showed practically no bond. Shortly afterward,
the cement having been continuously used meantime on adjacent
work which was under the supervision of another engineer and
pronounced satisfactory by him, the gentleman whose experience I
cite concluded to go further into the merits of this particular
cement, as he had a great deal of confidence in the judgment of
several of his brother engineers who had used it and pronounced
it satisfactory ; so he gathered new samples from a number of pack-
ages, divided the samples into several different parcels and sent
them to as many different laboratories, requesting each of them to
make thorough tests and to report not only the physical results, but
the general conclusions arrived at. The laboratories referred to in
due time reported most favorably on the cement. The test made
anew by my friend on a part of the same sample showed results as
nearly similar to his original findings as it was reasonable to expect ;
but upon again using the cement in question — this time under the
most rigid personal inspection and with constant and careful con-
tinued testing — no better results were obtained. In this particular
case the seeker after knowledge was no nearer the truth than he
had been at the beginning, except that he had learned that the brand
in question was unsatisfactory to him, in spite of the laboratory
showing. On this state of affairs a difficulty arises. Here is a
cement presumably manufactured and sold in good faith ; it fulfills
all requirements, in so far as laboratory tests go. That class of
cements is a proper class for the work in hand, as evidenced by the
fact that another brand of the same class, which does not stand the
same laboratory test quite as creditably, is used in place of the
rejected brand in the structure in question and does not fail. Other
engineers who are without fear and without reproach use the brand
and are satisfied with it, and yet it does not in his judgment serve
its purpose at all. His conscientious judgment dictates its rejec-
tion, and yet he feels alone, or nearly so, in his position. He doubts
his own conclusions, fears to do injustice to and work hardships on
the manufacturer or dealer, and yet cannot conscientiously permit
the use of that brand ; all the while admitting that it fulfills all the
specification requirements.

Now, for what purpose are engineering specifications intended ?
Is it not a fact that the engineer, by his plans and specifications,
should seek to describe as accurately and completely as possible
the work they cover in general and in detail, the manner of its
execution and the matter with which it must be executed, the classi-

DIFFICULTIES ATTENDING PROPER CEMENT INSPECTION. 309

fication of materials, etc. ? Does he not seek to describe the mate-
rials in such manner that there can be, in the mind of the bidder,
no doubt as to what is intended in order that the bidder may intelli-
gently estimate the cost of the work ; and, further, that there can
be no difference of opinion as to the intent between any two per-
sons who understand such instruments of the engineer or architect
as plans and specifications?

Whenever the specifications for any piece of work fail to so
describe a given material as not to admit of a doubt as to what
grade will be acceptable, they do not serve their purpose ; and when-
ever such description as may be set forth in any specifications will
clearly permit the use of a material which is unsatisfactory, that
description is faulty.

We are but too willing and too prone to blanket over such im-
perfections as this last with the phrase "acceptable to the engineer,"
although in so doing we but stumble into the other fault mentioned ;
for who but the engineer can say what will be acceptable to him?
In those materials concerning which we do have or can obtain
absolute knowledge there can be no excuse therefore for such laxity
of specifications, but there does seem to be some reason for it when
we touch upon cement. Although such practice is far from in-
frequent, in the judgment of the writer it is not ethical in general
to specify the "XYZ cement or equal," inasmuch as it makes a
standard of a trade product manufactured by one concern. On
the other hand, if we but specify that the cement shall be of a cer-
tain fineness, certain tensile strength, neat and sand, in specified
time limits and the other usual requirements, without the saving
clause "of a brand acceptable to the engineer," we bind ourselves
tentatively to accept some new brand of unknown durability and
value purely on a laboratory test, which, after all is said, counts
for very little. Again, the results of different laboratories on the
same sample vary so widely that when a cement is near to the re-
quirements, either above or below in your own laboratory it may
show far above or far below in some other laboratory ; or if two or
more be called on to test, one may be considerably above and an-
other as much below your own results.

On one brand, for instance, some eighteen tests, made by four
laboratories, on neat cement, seven days, ranged from 186 to 576
pounds. This is a very unusual and extreme case, but a difference
of 150 pounds ranging between 350 and 500 pounds is by no means
as rare as might be supposed. With such a state of affairs the
engineer must bring his best judgment to bear on the cement ques-
tion in order to get results ; he can be bound by no cast-iron rules.

3io

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

He must sometimes reject cements that fill the requirements of the
specifications, and on some other occasions he could safely admit a
cement that fails to come within the said requirements. Our speci-
fications, then, are not precise and clear, but are merely a rough
guide, and will so continue until such time as we have obtained
more absolute knowledge.

For comparison and analysis I have formulated a tabulation
showing the chemical analyses of five different cements, to which
I would invite vour attention :

Constituents. •

Domestic Portland.

Slag.

'Portland.

i

2

3

4

5

6

Silica

20.76
} IO.71 |

63.42
2.89
I.67
0.55

21.80
3-93
7-23

63.12
1.88
1. 17
o.54

21.48
2.70

7-74
62.22

2.95
i-75
0.27

28.85
} 12.05 {

51.20
2.27
I-3I
4-05

22.8o

i-55
14.10
46.10

3-65
1.40
7.40

22.50-
3-50
7.00

Alumina

61.OO

Magnesia

I.25

0.88
2.82

Nos. 1, 2 and 3 are domestic Portland cements; Nos. 4 and 5
are slag cements, and No. 6 is the average formulae given by
Candlot & Spalding for Portland cement. It will be noted that
Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 6 do not vary very widely as to chemical con-
stituency, and that the principal chemical difference between them
and Nos. 4 and 5, which are slag cements, is that the latter run
high on silica and low on lime.

Now let us compare Nos. 2 and 3, both Portland cements.
These show very little difference, and that little would hardly seem
to account for a difference in physical test. Records of No. 2 show
an average tensile strength of 850 pounds neat on seven-day test,
while No. 3 only shows 700 pounds. No. 3 is a well-known brand
that has been in extensive use for a number of years ; No. 2 is com-
paratively new, having been in use for only a few years. Both
are usually acceptable brands, and yet I have been reliably informed
within the past week that this No. 2 has recently been rejected by a
most painstaking and experienced engineer for the work under his
charge for reasons not stated.

It is plain that we cannot all be experts on cement or on any
other one material ; and if we are not experts, how can we pass
intelligently upon the merits or demerits of the material before us?

It is an "old saw" that "a little knowledge is a dangerous
thing," and while that saying is always more or less trite, it seems
to be particularly so here.

DIFFICULTIES ATTENDING PROPER CEMENT INSPECTION. 311

Under present conditions we are likely to reject a good cement
and use a poor one, and never learn that we have erred until too
late to rectify the error.

As a broad general proposition, it might be stated that the only
safe way to act on works of supreme importance would be to admit
only brands of high standing that have been well known for years ;
to assure ourselves of the freshness of that which is used, and to
test physically from time to time in order to assure ourselves that
the cement has not been tampered with. An objection to this plan
is that a virtual monopoly would be effected, since if all engineers
followed this line it would not pay to establish new factories and to
create new brands. The progress that has been so marked in the
character of Portland cement in the past few decades would also
be checked, as there would then be no incentive to improve or to
seek to improve the present standards.

There is no reason to hesitate in prophesying the course of the
profession on this question. We will continue in the future to do
as we have done in the past, and occasionally, when circumstances
and surroundings justify it, will "take chances" until the happy
time arrives when the laboratory experts devise some sure and cer-
tain method of classifying cements by their tests so that the rela-
tive values may be absolutely gauged, without regard to brand or
other trade-mark and without regard to past performances. In the
meantime we may all at least hope that such a time is near at hand.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. L. W. Brown (by letter). — The variation of 50 per cent,
or more referred to by the author between different laboratory tests
of the same artificial cement is, to my mind, due to want of ordinary
care on the one hand and to extraordinary care on the other in the
manipulation and care of the briquette ; and it may be observed
that with the greatest care a difference as high as 20 per cent, will
result between two laboratories testing the same artificial cement,
due to difference in method of manipulation. But the great dif-
ferences referred to unquestionably result from the improper and
careless manipulation of the briquette, which is perhaps the most
important part of the test and which is often done by the office boy
or janitor.

I am of the opinion that if an engineer wants accurate knowl-
edge of the cement he is using he must personally test it, and an
engineer in charge of large and important works should be equipped
and required to make these tests so as to nullify the element of care-
lessness and secure uniformity in manipulation. But such tests are

3i2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

more for the satisfaction of the engineer than to secure any valuable
results.

The value of laboratory tests was most clearly illustrated dur-
ing the construction of portions of the drainage work in New
Orleans, where the Drainage Commission arranged with Professor
Creighton, of the Tulane University, to make the tests. As often
happens, the results of the test were not made known until after the
lot from which samples were taken had been used in the work, and
when the results showed deficiency the work suffered ; from which
conclusions I feel justified in advancing the opinion that the test-
ing of cement as it is used cannot result in any benefit, and may be
the cause of serious trouble.

The American Society of Civil Engineers has for several years
past endeavored to reach some standard for testing cement, but has
as yet reached no definite conclusion; and the subject has received
the deep consideration of the best minds in this country and in
Europe. The conclusion reached is that the testing of cement em-
braces conditions wherein the slightest variation in manipulation
causes wide difference in results, and the manipulation does not
admit of the precision necessary to secure a satisfactory standard,
as will be readily observed by the following parts of the manipula-
tion wherein variation occurs :

How are samples obtained, and from what proportion of
packages ?

How are the samples mixed ?

Proportion of samples made into briquettes.

Depth, diameter and size of wire of screen.

Length of time screens of different finenesses should be shaken.

Humidity of atmosphere.

Temperature.

Amount of water, and whether regardless of humidity of
atmosphere.

Pressure in forming briquettes.

Fineness and angularity of sand.

Method of mixing.

Length of time the mixing should continue.

Method of filling the briquette frame.

Treatment of briquettes while setting.

Surface on which briquettes are formed.

Finish of briquettes, by trowel or otherwise.

Rate of applying load.

From this it is most apparent that no positive standard for
laboratory tests can be made which will give any reasonable

DIFFICULTIES ATTENDING PROPER CEMENT INSPECTION. 313

uniformity of results. Hence other measures must be thought
over, considered and, if satisfactory, adopted; and I would submit
the following, — viz :

Artificial or Portland cement is susceptible of the same class
of inspection at the factory as is steel, iron or machinery at the
mills, foundry or shop. The proportion of the ingredients can be
and are by the factory chemically determined in the slurry before
burning, and the fineness is regulated by screens as the finished
cement leaves the stones. The proper chemical analysis being
determined, as also the fineness for certain results, the factory
should sell the cement according to these different and known in-
gredients, coupled with the fineness, and the price proportioned to
the value of the contained ingredients and their fineness. The
engineer specifies the class of cement, and in the case of large works
he places a competent man at the factory, the same as he does at
the rolling mills, foundry or shop. The sack or barrel containing
the cement of proper requirements is labeled and sealed, and if the
seal is broken before reaching the work the cement is rejected.
When the amount of cement required is small, arrangements can be
made whereby the dealer, at small additional expense, has the
cement inspected, labeled and sealed by any of the several reputable
inspecting and testing firms.

The results from such inspection would far exceed in value
any laboratory tests, and would remove the main difficulty attend-
ing the use of cement. The factory must necessarily give an abso-
lutely true statement of chemical ingredients and fineness for the
various strengths of their particular cement.

As to natural cement, it is understood that the product cannot
possibly be uniform, and consequently it is not expected. Hence
natural cement, no matter how satisfactory a test may be shown,
should not be used on work where great stability and longevity are
required.

The fluctuating value of cement is very largely occasioned by
the manipulation of the mortar on the work where it is used, and is
often the cause of failure of good cement ; and it is obligatory, in
order to secure good results, that the engineer should have means
to ascertain positively the manipulation of not only one batch, but
of every batch used on the work. The main points to be secured
to provide good results in cement masonry or concrete are the
angularity, fineness and proper proportions of sand and the proper
amount of water. Too much water drowns the cement, and if
applied in large quantities or under pressure has a tendency to
separate the cement from the sand, so that the proper mixing is not

314 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

secured. The chemical analysis of the water should be known, and
turbid water, carrying clay in suspension, should not be used.
Thorough, complete and uniform mixing of the sand and cement
is also very important. In fact, a poor cement properly manipu-
lated will give better results than a good cement improperly
manipulated.

EARLY TRANSPORTATION CANALS. 315

EARLY TRANSPORTATION CANALS.

By J. T. Fanning, Member American Society Civil Engineers.

[Synopsis of a paper read before the Engineers' Club of Minneapolis,
April 15, 1901.*]

We sometimes hear that canals are now obsolete, but at the last
sessions of our National Congress there was offered a resolution
relating to a proposed canal. That resolution, if passed, might have
awakened a thrill among the nations like that of a proclamation of
defiance to the world. Recent foreign news items have indicated
that the German Government has considered most earnestly the
desirability of constructing additional extensive canals, and also
that the Russian Government has now in progress a canal intended
to connect the Gulf of Riga and the Black Sea, a work not less in
magnitude as an engineering work than is her Siberian railway.
It is only about two years since Vice-President Roosevelt, then
Governor of New York State, desiring to formulate and recom-
mend a canal policy for the State of New York, appointed an emi-
nent commission, and said to them :

"I desire the opinion of a body of experts, who shall include in
their number not merely high-class engineers, but men of business,
and especially men who have made a study of the problems of trans-
portation ; who know the relative advantages and disadvantages
of ship canals, barge canals and ordinary shallow canals ; who are
acquainted with the history of canal transportation as affected by
the competition of railroads, and who have the knowledge that will
enable us to profit by the experience of other countries in these
matters."

These suggestions indicate that the question of useful canals is
still a living issue and indicates that the charge of obsoleteness
applies only to those canals whose usefulness has been outgrown
through lack of their capacities. On close examination some of
those old canals are found to have been stupendous works, which,
for their day, were most creditable to their promoters, and may even
now excite our admiration. They are, therefore, of historical
interest.

Here followed a concise historical sketch of the ancient lowland canals
constructed and used by the Chaldees, the hydraulic, works of the Egyptians
and the colonial hydraulic enterprises of the Romans.

Sluice Chutes. — If we keep in remembrance the fact that the
early transportation waterways were without locks, and that sluice

*Manuscript received May 31, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

316 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

chutes were used as substitutes for locks, we shall see clearly that
those waterways could have been only works of the deltas and low
countries. The Chinese have not yet modern locks on their grand
or other canals, but they are said to pull their boats from one level
up to slightly higher levels by the aid of windlasses, and with much
expenditure of manual labor. Instead of locks they have guide
walls at each chute, narrowing the canal to the width of their widest
boats, and they use stop planks or timbers at the downstream end
of the changes of canal levels and open the chute when a boat is to
pass. This was the method in use in Italy before the idea of a gate
at the upper end of the lock was conceived.

Straight-Edge Levels. — The old excavators of canals had not
the advantage of a spirit level to aid them in laying out their works.
The Romans are said to have used, in leveling, the straight edge of
a plank about twenty feet long. At each end of this plank a frame
depended, and on each frame a line was made at right angles to the
top of the plank. While in use, the plank was so adjusted that
plumb lines hung from the top of the plank would cover the vertical
lines on the upright frames. The top edge of the plank was then
level and could be used for sighting. In the top edge of the plank
was a groove which was sometimes filled with water, and when the
water was equally near the top edge of the plank at the ends, the
plank was sighted along for a level line.

Canal Locks. — The invention of the second or upper gate, in
connection with a canal chute, embodied the principles of construc-
tion of the modern lock.

This invention is claimed in Italy for two brothers Domenico,
in 1481, and the State of Venice has claimed to have been the first
to adopt the double gates. It is said that Leonardo da Vinci,
famous as painter, architect, philosopher and engineer, adopted the
Domenico scheme to connect two canals in Milan, by six locks with
a total fall of 34 feet, and he has since often been mentioned as the
inventor. He may have first so planned a lock that it became a
practical and useful invention.

This lock, with upper and lower gates, marks a distinct ad-
vance in canal engineering ; for canal boats that had heretofore been
of service in the low and nearly level countries might now rise to
the higher lands and proceed farther inland, and might even cross
ridges of moderate height from stream to stream and from estuaries
to elevated inland lakes.

To the Italian philosophers, Galileo, Castelli, Toricelli and their
pupils we are indebted for much of the early experimental knowl-
edge relating to the flow of water through orifices and small pipes

EARLY TRANSPORTATION CANALS. 317

and over weirs, and for the early formulas developed from their
researches ; and, likewise, we are indebted to the Italian engineers
for the methods of practical construction of transportation canals,
on which boats might ascend from the lower to the upper part of a
river valley.

The broad lower valley of the River Po, extending from the
foot of the Alps on the north to the foot of the Appennines on the
south, was in early times covered with a network of irrigation
canals, and this valley became in consequence the fertile garden of
Northern Italy. When the true canal lock was invented, the canal
system extended up the vallev of the Po above the city of Milan,
and the Italians became the most skillful canal builders in
Europe.

Foreign Canals with Locks. — In 1758 the English Parliament
granted to the Duke of Bridgewater an act for the construction of
a transportation canal between Manchester and Liverpool, and this
canal was constructed under the direction of the eminent engineer
Brindley. It is recorded that, in the middle of the last century, the
cost of transporting goods by road between Liverpool and Man-
chester, about thirty miles, was forty shillings per ton, or about
thirty-three cents per ton per mile. The Bridgewater canal re-
duced this rate to six shillings, or about five cents per ton mile.
The result gave a tremendous impetus to manufactures and to
mining in England, and started England on a period of most re-
markable commercial prosperity that placed .her in the front rank
of manufacturing nations.

Following this beginning of water transportation from the
Mersey harbor, England soon developed an extended canal system,
opening important lines of internal navigation in various parts of
the United Kingdom.

The Royal and Grand Canals in Ireland, ninety-two and
eighty-five miles in length respectively, were originally works of
much importance. They extended from Dublin, on the east, to
Limerick on the west of Ireland.

The prominent industrial advancement of Belgium was largely
due to the promotion of cheap water transportation. Belgium has
maintained its principal waterways, and still derives great advan-
tage from them^ From Brussels, the capital, which is near the cen-
ter of the state, there is even now a regular line of steamers to
London.

Holland was known as the "Land of Dykes and Ditches"
before she began to embank her lowlands from the sea. Her
ditches still serve as public thoroughfares for navigation in summer
29

318 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

and for sledges and for skaters in the winter. The Haarlem Canal,
surrounding the Haarlem Meer, a lake of about seventy square
miles area, was originally excavated to facilitate the drainage of the
Meer, and to furnish a transportation route to replace navigation
upon the lake. The canal surrounding the lake is thirty-eight miles
in length. Into this canal the waters of the lake were pumped with
an average lift of sixteen feet, and the rainfall is still pumped into
the canal. This area of seventy square miles is redeemed from
below sea level for the benefit of agriculture and the enrichment of
the state.

The canal works of the French engineers present some of the
most scientific and substantial hydraulic constructions for transpor-
tation purposes 01 the early as well as of modern times.

The German and Russian engineers have also executed, in
their respective countries, some important transportation canals that
are worthy of special attention, but our time will not permit refer-
ence to them in detail.

Gustavas Vasa, in Sweden, is said to have been not less ambi-
tious for the development of the resources of his state than was
Peter the Great for the development of the internal resources of
Russia. It was his desire that there should be continuous water
transportation from Gothenburg, on the west, to Stockholm, on the
east. Along the proposed route are the lakes Wener, Hielmar and
Mrelar, whose connecting streams have great cataracts. Several
successive rulers, after Gustavas, examined anew this navigation
project and partial works were undertaken from time to time. In
1806, Thomas Telford, the experienced and famous canal engineer
of England, was called to examine and report upon the whole pro-
ject. Telford's comprehensive plan was adopted and the work
commenced. Sixty-five miles of the line required artificial work,
and the remaining fifty-five miles were lake navigation. The sum-
mit of the canal is 296 feet above tide level. The plan showed 42
feet width of canal at the bottom and 10 feet depth of water. The
locks were planned 120 feet long and 24 feet width. This wat>
justly regarded as one of the most important public works in prog-
ress in the first decade of the late century, and this canal is still
in service.

The Swedish Canal, connecting the Wener and Wetter Lakes,
is of nearly equal importance as respects remarkable construction
and extent of traffic.

American Canals. — Our own Washington, the surveyor and
engineer, when a private citizen of Virginia, exerted a strong influ •
ence and gave his best endeavors to inaugurate a comprehensive

EARLY TRANSPORTATION CANALS. 319

system of American internal routes of transportation both of public
roads and canals.

As a surveyor, as promoter of the interests of his State, and
then, in 1754, as commander of a military expedition, he became
familiar with the trails from Chesapeake Bay and James River over
the Allegheny Mountains to the Ohio River Valley, and with the
portages from the Hudson River along the Mohawk and Oswego
Valleys to Lake Ontario. Before 1776, a considerable migration of
families from the Atlantic Coast colonies had started toward the
fertile lands west of the mountains. The war of Independence then
interfered with the advancement of projects for public highways.
Soon after the close of the Revolutionary War, Washington is said
to have obtained a charter for a water route between the Hudson
River and the Great Lakes, and was elected the first president of
the company. This was, however, but one of the efforts that later
led the State of New York to undertake the greater waterway along
a similar route.

At the opening of the new century, the farmers who had
migrated from Massachusetts to Vermont were sending their pro-
duce to Boston by way of the Merrimac River, and the farmers who
had migrated to lands known as Central New York were sending
their produce to market by transports down the Delaware and Sus-
quehanna Rivers in frail boats which were not expected to be re-
turned up the rivers.

In 1805 Congress appointed three commissioners to search for
the shortest and most desirable route for transportation over the
xAlleghenies, and, in 1808, Albert Gallatin made an exhaustive report
to Congress upon the topography of the United States, and sug-
gested a network of rivers, canals and roads, to be improved by the
central government.

The necessity of cheapening transportation was at the same
time suggesting private development of waterways by chartered
companies.

The American canal-building era began with starting the con-
structions of the Middlesex Canal in Massachusetts and the Santee
Canal in South Carolina in 1802. The Middlesex Canal was com-
pleted from the Charles River at Boston to the Merrimac River near
Lowell in 1808. The era of the construction of old-style transpor-
tation canals continued until about the year 1840, at which date
about 4000 miles of canals had been built in the United States,
beside the important canal works of Canada.

In the New England States there were 227.69 miles of canal,
of which the Middlesex, thirty miles long, and the Blackstone,

320 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

forty-five miles long-, were most important. These two have gone
out of use.

In the remaining Atlantic States there were 2526.77 miles of
canals, of which the Erie, 363 miles length, and its branches, 365.75
miles in length, were the most important. The Erie Canal was
commenced in 1817 and completed in 1825.

There were also, in the Atlantic States, the Delaware and Hud-
son Canal, 119.63 miles length; the Raritan, 42 miles; the Morris
and Essex, 101.75 miles; the Lehigh, 84.48 miles; the Chesapeake
and Ohio, 136 miles; the James River, 175 miles; the Dismal
Swamp Canal, 23 miles.

A large part of the canals above enumerated are still useful in
the transportation of heavy freights.

In Illinois there is the Illinois and Michigan Canal, on which
there is still traffic.

In Indiana there is the Wabash and Erie Canal, 187 miles in
length.

In Ohio there is the Ohio and Erie Canal, 307 miles in length ;
the Hocking, 50 miles; the Miami, 178 miles; the Sandy and
Beaver, 76 miles ; and the Mahoning, jy miles in length.

Ohio, Indiana and Illinois have a total of 1086.9 miles, while
Alabama and Louisiana have together 151 miles of canals.

The Pennsylvania system, extending from the head of the
Chesapeake Bay to Pittsburg, was a combination of canal and rail-
way, and that part between Harrisburg and Pittsburg was substan-
tially adjacent to the route now followed by the Pennsylvania Rail-
road.

The Schuylkill and Lehigh systems were essentially slack-
water navigations, involving many dams in the rivers and locks at
the dams.

The Erie Canal and its branches, as first constructed, had gen-
erally a surface width of 40 feet and depth of 4 feet, and locks of 90
feet length and 15 feet width, and accommodated boats of 80 tons
burden.

The Lehigh had a depth of 5 feet and locks 100 by 20 feet, and
accommodated boats of 100 tons.

The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal had a depth of 6 feet and
locks 100 by 15 feet, and accommodated boats of 150 tons.

The Illinois and Michigan Canal had a depth of 6 feet, and
accommodated boats of 150 tons.

The Erie has been twice enlarged, and the New York State
authorities are to-day discussing the proper amount of appropria-
tion, whether $22,000,000 for another moderate enlargement or

EARLY TRANSPORTATION CANALS. 321

$62,000,000 for a considerable enlargement of the Erie Canal prism
and locks.

In January, 1900, the eminent New York State Commission,
already mentioned, reported on two projects of enlargement. One
project proposed to deepen the canal prism to 9 feet and adapt its
locks to pass boats of 450 tons burden, at a cost of $21,161,645, and
the other project recommended was to deepen the prism to 12 feet
and increase the locks so as to pass boats with a cargo capacity of
1000 tons each, at a cost of $58,894,668.

The commission suggested pneumatic or other mechanical lifts
at Cohoes and Lockport, as substitutes for the groups of locks at
those sites.

Our limitations as to time permit only brief mention of the
Canadian Lachine, Welland and Sault Ste. Marie Canals, because
they should be classed among ship canals, and therefore not strictly
within our present province. For the same reason we can only
mention in general terms the American Sault Ste. Marie Canal,
which surpasses all others in dimensions of locks and in amount of
traffic.

Slide Gate Locks. — One of the first American examples of
rolling lock gates was completed, in 1885, at the Davis Island dam
on the Ohio River, five miles below Pittsburg. The lock is 600 feet
long and no feet wide. Each gate is opened by rolling it into a
pocket at one side of the canal. A quadrant gate is proposed for the
head gate of the lock on the Mississippi River between Minneapolis
and St. Paul. This gate is 80 feet wide, and is to be raised by pres-
sure from the water above the lock, somewhat after the manner of
operating bear-trap dams.

Inclined Plane Lifts. — For nearly three hundred years after
its invention, in Italy, the two-gate lock was uniformly adopted in
new canal constructions. Then inclined planes were introduced in
a few high lifts. A conspicuous example in our own country is on
the Morris and Essex Canal in New Jersey. This canal extends
from the Jersey Flats through Newark and over the hills to the
Delaware River at Easton. This canal has 23 inclined planes, with
average lift or fall of 58 feet, thus covering 1334 feet of rise and
fall, while an additional 223 feet of rise and fall is overcome by
locks of low lift. The boats constructed for this canal were 8{,
feet wide and 60 to 80 feet long, and of 25 to 30 tons burden, but
not exceeding, with maximum load, 50 tons weight.

There were twin-lock chambers at each end of the incline, and
a track similar to a railway track extended through the lower locks
up the incline and through to the end of the upper locks. A truck,

322 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

similar to a railway platform car, but lower, was run into the lock
before the boat entered. This truck was nearly as long as the boat,
and rested at each end on a group of four flanged wheels. On top
of each side of the truck floor was a truss to stiffen the floor. This
truss extended a little higher than the gunwale of the boat. After
the boat had entered the lock, it floated over the truck and was made
fast to it. A chain, securely attached to the frame of the truck at
one end, extended over a windlass at the top of the incline and to
the twin truck. By aid of power, applied to the windlass, the car
and boat were quickly hauled up or lowered down the incline, when
the water floated the boat off from the car and the boat proceeded
on its regular journey.

On the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, an inclined plane high lift
was constructed to pass boats from and to the Potomac River.
This was located about one mile above Georgetown, and was of lift
equivalent to the five locks at Georgetown.

The Monckland Canal, near Glasgow, has a conspicuous
example of an incline sloping one in ten, and with a vertical lift of
98 feet. Each truck runs on twenty wheels, and its tank is 70 feet
long, 1 2,3 feet wide and 2\ feet deep. The weight of each car-
riage, with water and boat, is about 80 tons, and two are used,
counterbalancing each other.

In the overland canal in Germany there are inclined planes on
which boats of 50 tons weight are handled.

Another class of canal inclined planes in Germany is known as
Greve's Lock. This consists of two inclined channels, side by side,
sloping 1 in 10, with very smooth walls and floors. This double
channel unites two canal levels, and has gates at the upper level.
When a boat is to ascend, it is first floated into the foot of one chan-
nel, then a movable valve, mounted on wheels and of the full cross-
section of the channel, moves up behind the boat and crowds for-
ward a sufficient mass of water up the inclined plane to float the
boat to the upper level. At the same time a floating boat may be
similarly lowered in the twin channel. The two valves are con-
nected together by a chain which passes over a windlass at the head
of the4incline. A small surplus of water on the side of the descend-
ing boat overcomes the frictions of the moving valves.

Canal Aqueducts. — The Chirck aqueduct, on the Ellesmere
Canal in North Wales, is an excellent example of bold and skillful
engineering. This work was planned by Telford, and was com-
pleted in 181 1. This granite arched aqueduct of 10 spans and its
high embankments cross the valley of the Ceriog River where the

EARLY TRANSPORTATION CANALS. 323

valley is 700 feet wide. The water surface in the aqueduct is 70
feet above the level of the river.

The Dee aqueduct, on the same canal, is 1007 feet in length,
and consists of an iron trough about 12 feet wide. This iron chan-
nel is supported by 19 arches and trusses on masonry piers. The
surface of the water in the canal is 121 feet above the surface of the
river.

The Seneca River aqueduct of the Erie system has 31 spans of
22 feet clear opening. The waterway is a timber channel 53 feet
wide, with 6 feet depth of water. The tow-path is carried on 31
masonry arches.

On the Erie Canal there are two aqueducts over the Mohawk
River. One of these is 1188 feet length.

The Genesee aqueduct, at Rochester, is of cut stone masonry.
It is 804 feet long and has 11 arches.

The Delaware and Raritan Canal has 12 aqueducts, and the
central and western divisions of the Pennsylvania Canal had a total
of 49 aqueducts.

Canal Tunnels. — On the Leeds and Liverpool, in England,
there is a tunnel 4920 feet long, 18 feet high and 17 feet wide.

On the Birmingham Canal there are several tunnels having an
aggregate length of 6^ miles.

There are several short tunnels on the American canals, and
the layout of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal contemplated a sum-
mit tunnel 3f miles long, passing through the crest of the Alle-
gheny Mountains.

Canal Dams. — The Schuylkill River slack navigation involved
the construction of 34 dams. The central division of the Penn-
sylvania Canal required 18 dams, and other American canals and
their feeders have required numerous dams, some of them expen-
sive.

Hydraulic Lifts. — Hydraulic lifts are another substitute for
locks on transportation canals, and they have proved successful,
and are especially valuable as savers of lockage water and of time in
lockages when there are great differences of level between two sec-
tions of the canal. One of the first successful lifts was at Anderton
in England, for connecting the river Weaver navigation with the
Trent and Mersey Canal.

In this lift tnere is a pair of metallic tanks, each of proper size
to receive a canal boat and the water to float the boat. Each tank
is mounted on a long vertical plunger of 3 feet diameter. Beneath
the canal bed is sunk a long cylinder into which the plunger enters
through a stuffing box, so that the cylinder and plunger constitute

324 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

a hydraulic ram or lift which, in this case, can move vertically 49
feet.

When a boat is to pass from a lower to an upper level, one tank
is lowered, so that its floor is level with the bed of the canal. Its
end is opened and a boat floats into the tank. The end is then
closed, and the boat, still floating in the water-filled tank, is lifted
49 feet to the upper level. The gate at the other end of the tank is
then opened and the boat floats into the upper level of the canal.
At the same time another boat may have been lowered in the twin
tank. The tanks are so arranged that the weight of one balances
that of the other. There is a group of guide columns at each corner
of the double lift and the tops of the columns are connected
together by stiffening trusses. A tank girder at the top level for
each tank, connects the lift tank with the canal in the earth embank-
ment. A small pumping plant, near the base of the lift, gives the
hydraulic pressure equal to 38 atmospheres, which sustains the rams.
A small surplus of water in the descending tank overcomes the fric-
tion, and this slight difference in weight is secured by drawing a
small quantity of water from the tank which is to ascend. This
Ander ton plant was erected in 1875.

The Les Fontinettes lift, near St. Omer, in France, and the
La Louviere lift, on the Canal du Centre, in Belgium, are similar in
character to the Anderton, but are larger and have two hydraulic
plungers for each tank. There are substantial masonry guide piers
at Les Fontinettes.

The lift tanks at Anderton are JJ feet long and 15 feet wide.
They have 5 feet depth of water, and lift boats of 100 tons burden.

The lift tanks at Les Fontinettes are 133 feet long and 17 feet
wide. They have 6.6 feet depth of water, and lift boats of 300 tons.

The La Louviere lift tanks are 141 feet long and 18.4 feet wide.
They have 8.5 feet depth of water, and lift boats of no tons.

Their rams are respectively 3 feet, 6.6 feet and 6.6 feet diame-
ter, and their vertical lifts are respectively 49 feet, 43 feet and 55
feet.

In the "Prussman" lock it was proposed to support a lift tank
on five or more submerged cylinders under the lock. These cyl-
inders were air-tight and contained sufficient air to support and
elevate the tank containing the canal boat to be lifted.

Pneumatic Locks. — The Canal Board of the State of New York
proposed to use pneumatic locks in the improvement of the Erie
Canal, and designs for such locks were prepared by Chauncey Dut-
ton, C.E., in 1895, for the Cohoes lift of 144 feet, and for the Lock-
port lift of 57-! feet.

EARLY TRANSPORTATION CANALS. 325

This system proposed also to employ metal tanks in which the
boat is floated in water as it is elevated. The floor of the tank will
rest on five or more inverted cylinders, like straight-sided bells,
which are open at the bottom, but closed at the top by a tight con-
nection with the tank floor.

When the lock tank is down, the hollow cylinders beneath the
floor project into the water. When the lock tank is to be raised, air
is pumped into all these inverted bells or hollow cylinders, which
are so connected by pipes that there will be uniform pressure in all.
The locks are in pairs, their pressure pipes are connected so that
each may be equally buoyed, and each will sustain its tanks and
floated boat. When the tank lifts are to change elevations, a little
water is withdrawn from the ascending tank. A complete set of
operating pipes is provided, with valves and controlling apparatus
and with air and water pumps.

The proposed length of each boat tank is 310 feet, the water
width 29 feet, and the water depth 12 feet. Each tank is expected
to pass up, at one motion, two boats carrying each 1350 tons, or a
total of 2700 tons of cargo, within ten minutes time between
arrival and departure of the boats, and to pass down two similar
boats at the same time.

Results. — The construction of canals has reduced costs of
transportation of agricultural products and of merchandise of the
lake districts from $0.25 per ton mile on earth roads to $0.00075 per
ton mile along the water route which our Northwestern products
now take to the Eastern markets.

These canal waters first made possible the full settlement of
our lands on the western slope of the Appalachian chain, and then,
together with lake navigation, made possible, by cheapening trans-
portation, the settlements and agricultural developments of our
Middle and Western States. In process of time they have made
possible the sending of the grain and flour of the Northwestern to
the Eastern States and to Europe.

These canals present some most admirable examples of skillful
engineering. The story of the evolution of these American canals
is also, in large part, the story of the evolution of the profession of
civil engineering in America, and the record of our predecessors
along this line is one to which we may turn with satisfaction, with
professional admiration and with pardonable national pride.

Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.

Association

OF

Engineering Societies.

Organized 18«1.

Vol. XXVI. JUNE, 1901. No. 6.

v- J—

This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or for
the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.

SUBAQUEOUS TUNNELS FOR GAS CONDUITS.

By W. W. Cum mings, Member, Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

[Read before the Society, April 17, 1901.*]

At the first of the year 1899, in the distribution of its gas,
the Massachusetts Pipe Line Gas Company found itself confronted
by the problem of three river crossings : The Mystic River at
Maiden Bridge, Charlestown near Everett; the Charles River at
the new bridge between Charlestown and Boston proper, and the
Charles again at the River Street Bridge between Cambridge and
Brighton.

The size of the pipe at Maiden Bridge was to be 54 inches,
that at Charlestown Bridge 42 inches and that at River Street
48 inches. It was necessary to avoid "pockets" in the pipe, which
would tend to obstruct the passage of the gas by the collection
of water of condensation, and to provide for the removal of this
drippage.

The pressure head in the tunnels, when passing gas, was liable
to vary from 3 to 12 inches water column, i.e., the problem was
to keep the water out rather than the gas in.

The requirements of the State Board of Harbor and Land
Commissioners were as follows : For the Maiden Bridge the top of
siphon must not be less than 23 feet below mean low water, and
the clear width of draw opening must be at least 43 feet ; for the
Charlestown Bridge the top of siphon must not be less than 28 feet
below mean low water, and the clear width of draw opening at
least 50 feet; for the River Street Bridge the top of siphon must
^Manuscript received May 20, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
30

328 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

not be less than 10 feet below mean low water, and the clear
width of draw opening not less than 36 feet.

This gave a minimum cover of 7 feet at the Maiden Bridge,
and none whatever .at the Charlestown Bridge or at the River
Street Bridge, so far as the Harbor Commissioners were concerned.
As a matter of fact, the legs of the siphons were placed farther
apart than these requirements, in order to provide room for
fenders and for working of the draw, while the least safe cover was
about 8 feet of earth. It was also necessary to avoid obstructing
the channel during construction.

It was necessary to take into consideration the future changes
in these bridges, since, after once connecting the various gas com-
panies, it would be disastrous to cut the supply.

This latter consideration barred the old Warren Bridge, lo-
cated just above the new Charlestown Bridge, and rendered the
River Street Bridge uncertain, while at that very time steps were
being taken toward building, on the Maiden Bridge site, a new
structure, in which the location of the draw had a wide range
of probability. The possible deepening of the channels had also
to be taken into account.

At Maiden Bridge a siphon in place would cost $14,000, and
the approach on piles (800 feet in length) $15,000, fenders $20,000,
a total of $49,000 from bank to bank. Bids were received from
Charles Haskin for constructing a tunnel and laying the pipe for
$33 per lineal foot, the material to be furnished by the pipe line
company. This made a total of about $50,000 from bank to bank,
as against $49,000 for the ordinary siphon. This difference in
cost was more than balanced by the advantages afforded by the
tunnel, which would be practically indestructible, independent of
the changes in highway traffic and navigation, and free from lia-
bility to accident and need of repairs.

At the Charlestown Bridge two siphons would have been
necessary, if constructed in the ordinary way, at a cost of about
$24,000 and $10,000 for the extra fenders, while the bids for a
tunnel under the two draw spans was $51 per lineal foot for driving
the tunnel and $11 per foot for laying the pipe and concreting, all
material to be furnished by the Massachusetts Pipe Line Com-
pany as before, making a total of $36,000, as against $34,000 for
the ordinary siphons. At this time the advantages of a tunnel
were so obvious that it was determined to use that construction
here also.

About April 1, 1898, the Maiden Bridge Tunnel was started
with a time limit for completion set at August 1 the same year, and

SUBAQUEOUS TUNNELS FOR GAS CONDUITS. 329

contracts were made for the completion of the other two a month
later. September 1 being the time set for turning gas into the
mains. As a matter of fact the Maiden and Charlestown Tun-
nels were completed about December 1, 1899.

Three methods were suggested in the design of the tunnels.
In all of these the tubular casing by wooden lagging (a method
originated by the contractor, Mr. Charles Haskin, and described
later) was considered.

One plan was to line the lagging with brick masonry laid
under compressed air, and to lay the pipe or pipes on blocking, free
and open to inspection, repair and possible future additions. Had
the fluid to be carried been water instead of gas, the convenience
undoubtedly would have outweighed the possible extra cost. As
it was, the advisability of avoiding anything that might be con-
verted into a gas pocket prevented such constructions, while the
rigidity of the structure was best obtained by making it one solid
piece, as by filling the space between the pipe and the lagging.

In sinking the shafts it was proposed to use ordinary sheath-
ing until the water should be reached, and from that point to
sink a steel tubular casing by means of compressed air.

At the Maiden Bridge wash borings were made and compared
with those of the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission, which had
driven a tunnel a few feet to the east. It might be said here that
in all cases these borings, although made by a responsible firm,
were chiefly remarkable for their unreliability.

The first shaft was sunk on the Everett side of the Maiden
Bridge, as near the abutment as the retaining wall would allow.
After going about 6 feet, the steel caisson was erected and sunk
in the ordinary way (see Plate A, Fig. 3), paving stones being
placed on the shelf at a and the excavation carried on under the
cutting edge b. The casing was kept plumb by varying the exca-
vation and also by such guides as might be used at the top. The
caisson was extended by removing the air lock and inserting a 10-
foot section, caulking the flanged joints when necessary.

This shaft was 46 feet deep 43 feet below high water, at which
times, of course, the air pressure was about 23 pounds.

The steel casing, shown also in Plate A, was made of j^-inch
boiler plates riveted to a 3-inch angle iron, which, with the corre-
sponding angle iron of the next section, formed a flanged joint that
was made up with red lead and caulked where necessary. The
inner diameter of the tubing was 7 feet and the length of a sec-
tion was generally 10 feet, each section weighing about 4000
pounds.

330

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The cutting edge was made on the first section by placing a
wide flange 2 feet back from the bottom and staying it with
brackets as shown at a. On this shelf the paving stones were
placed, to balance the upward pressure of the air and to furnish a
downward thrust at the cutting edge. Stones, piles, sunken tim-
ber, etc., were broken up and taken out through the lock.

When material sufficiently compact to prevent the escape of
the air was reached the sinking of the caisson was stopped, and
the lagging was carried down the shelf, as shown in Fig. 4,
Plate A.

This lagging consisted of circular segments 6 inches wide,
sawn from 2-inch plank and having an outer diameter of 7 feet.
There were eight of these segments to a ring, and they were

Hydraulic Jack

Section A. B After Pushing Ahead

Before Pushing Ahead

Plate D.
Shield used in Driving Malden Tunnel, Mass. Pipe Line Gas Co.

placed by spiking to the previous work with 7-inch spikes, each
ring breaking joints with the previous one. This construction,
which was the same as that used in the tunnel proper, was found
to be exceedingly rigid.

A few feet above the point where the tunnel was to be started,
the tubular form was changed and the "goose neck" was started.
This consisted in constantly lengthening that diameter of the shaft
parallel to the axis of the tunnel, on the side from which it was
to start, until room enough was obtained to turn a 54-inch pipe,
8 feet long, into the tunnel by a method similar to that shown
in Plate B, Fig. 5. In this goose neck the sides were neces-
sarily flat, but, being surrounded by stiff clay at this shaft, they
showed no sign of weakness. At the Charlestown tunnel, how-
ever, the material was sandy and the side came in.

SUBAQUEOUS TUNNELS FOR GAS CONDUITS.

33 *

The shaft was driven 6 feet below what was to be the bottom
of the tunnel, and 4 feet of concrete were put in as a foundation
of the pipe that was to make the leg of the siphon (see Plate C).

The shaft on the Boston side was then sunk in the same
way, and the tunnel started from that end.

In driving the tunnel a shield was used similar to the Great-
head design, as shown in Plate D. The excavation was carried
about two feet ahead of the shield in good digging, and the
latter was pressed forward by the hydraulic jacks a a bearing
directly against the lagging. This served a double purpose, push-

Plate G.

ing the shield forward and closing up the joints in the lagging,
although, as the lumber was thoroughly dry when placed, it was
found that the swelling of the wood made very tight work. The
lagging was given a wash of cement after it was placed, and
such leaks as showed were caulked with wooden wedges and yarn,
and by feeding dry cement into the holes, the escaping air under
pressure carrying the cement with it. (See Plate G.)

North of the draw the tunnel ran beneath an ice guard, as
shown on the general plan, Plate C, and the bottom of the piles
had to be cut off in the heading. This occasioned no great hard-

332 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

ships, while the driving was in clay, but about three-quarters of
the way across the river a streak of silt and sand was struck,
which, being only 7 feet thick between the top of the tunnel and
the bottom of the river, followed the piles into the heading and
stopped the work.

Poling planks were driven ahead, similar to those shown in
Fig. 6, Plate B, and cut so that the ends could be worked back
on the cutting edge of the shield. Gunny sacks, filled with horse
manure, sawdust, etc., were thrust into the cavities, and, as soon
as the holes were plugged, they were quickly plastered with
clay. The material ahead was then excavated and the shield
pushed forward. The surrounding material was so soft and un-
stable that the lateral movement of the shield was scarcely con-
trollable, the whole structure moving toward the side that caved
in.

As a whole, however, after the soft material was passed and
the transit line extended, the headings met within 0.42 inch. The
tunnel was allowed to fill with water and to remain filled for a
few days, to give the woodwork a chance to swell and to permit
the silt to pack about the lagging.

To a great extent this closed the remaining leaks, so that a
No. 5 3-inch pulsometer easily kept the water down after the air
pressure was removed. After pumping the tunnel out, a cross-
section was taken, and this, compared with one taken before,
showed that the tunnel had flattened about ]/i inch, thus proving
that the lagging would not be permanent of itself.

In giving the line of the tunnel the distance between the shafts
was triangulated and the direction transferred to the tunnel by
means of two wires which passed through holes tapped in the
air lock. This gave a base line about 4 feet long, which was
produced into the heading by means of nails in the 'roof of the
tunnel.

In this tunnel it was decided to lay pipe 54 inches in diameter,
8 feet long, with turned and bored joints, as shown in Plates E
and F. The pipes were lowered in the shaft on the Boston side
of the tunnel, turned on a pair of skids in the goose neck, the
same as shown in Plate B, Fig. 5, and drawn through by an
engine at the other shaft. A piece of timber was fastened to the
tunnel, and the joints were forced home by a hydraulic jack which
rested against it.

The joints were first smeared with sal-ammoniac, but it was
found impossible to get them tight, as the turning was more or
less irregular, and what sal-ammoniac was not washed off by the

SUBAQUEOUS TUNNELS FOR GAS CONDUITS.

333

water, refused to rust as it did on top. Instead of rust, a soft
black coating formed on the metal, presumably due to the sul-
phuretted hydrogen which was present, and when this was wiped
off the metal was left clean and smooth.

The leaky joints were caulked with copper wire, dry shingles,
jute, cold lead and anything that best suited the particular leak,
and the joints were filled flush with Roman Orchard cement.
(Plate F.)

Between the pipe and the lagging was a space varying from
nothing, where the lagging was cut out to improve the alignment,
to 6 inches at a point diametrically opposite. This space it was
proposed to fill with grout under pressure.

An expert with "experience" submitted a bid for doing this
bv forcing- a mixture of lime and cement into the cavitv. This was

Plate F.
Taper Jointed Pipe used in Malden Tunnel, Mass. Pipe Line Gas Co.

Scale i : 4.

guaranteed to do the work, the lime being "greasy" and acting
as a carrier for the cement. Meanwhile the engineers made a
series of experiments as to the action of different cements and
mixtures under conditions similar to those on the work. In each
case grout was made, and poured into a pan containing salt water.
All the cements to which lime had been added remained like so
much mud ; some of the cements with high records caked like
dirt, while some of the cheaper low-grade cements took a quick
initial set, which, of course, was what was wanted in this case.
It was found that one brand of cement, into which steam was
turned, became soft and slippery like paste and set very quickly.
A jet of steam, acting on the principal of an injector, was ac-
cordingly used, the grout being mixed in a trough at the top
of the shaft and carried down by 1^4-inch pipes. (See Plate C.)

334 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

In laying the 54-inch pipes, bulkheads had been built between
the pipe and the lagging every 25 feet or more. Each length of
this pipe had a hole for a ^4-inch pipe tapped in its top, and into
these holes the grouting pipes were successively introduced, the
progress of the grouting being watched through the holes in the
succeeding pipes, and these holes being plugged when the grout
began to appear.

The steam jet was in the shaft, and as the reach from it to the
introducing hole became greater and the time of changing forward
became longer, the injector became plugged with cement and was
finally abandoned, the pressure due to the height of the mixing
trough being used and the pipe washed out with clean water
after each succeeding run. When the distance became too great
to get the desired pressure by this method, the grout was mixed in
the tunnel and injected by means of a force pump.

From time to time the plugs were withdrawn from the top
of the tunnel, and the grout cut through with a drill to determine
its set and fill. The best results were obtained when the steam
jet was used, the cement seeming to have swollen in setting.

Where the cavity was not entirely filled, the force pump was
used to finish the work. In the shafts the pipes were concreted as
fast as placed, the steel casing being left in.

In driving the tunnel the water was taken care of by two
4-inch pulsometers, and by two steam ejectors rigged tandem;
that is, one at the bottom of the shaft and one halfway up.

On the completion of the tunnel the water of condensation and
leakage amounted to 4I/2 barrels per day.

The tunnel was finished December 1, 1899, and gas was
turned on about December 3. The drippage decreases to 2l/2
barrels a day in summer and increases to 193^ barrels a day in
winter.

The Charlestown Tunnel was commenced as soon as the air
lock could be spared from the Maiden Tunnel. The dimensions
and form of this tunnel are shown in Plate H.

The shafts were sunk in midstream from temporary platforms,
and did not differ materially from those of the Maiden Tunnel.

For convenience in handling the water in working from both
shafts at once, the summit was placed between the shafts. This
tunnel was driven without a shield, under an air pressure of 28
pounds, the clay being stiff enough to maintain the heading ex-
cept in one part where gravel was encountered in the roof. Here
poling boards, horse manure, etc., were used, as in the Maiden
Tunnel, except that the poling planks were worked back on the

SUBAQUEOUS TUNNELS FOR GAS CONDUITS. 335

lagging when cut off, instead of the shield as in that tunnel. (See
Plate B, Fig. 6.)

The goose neck- was turned in less favorable material in
this tunnel, and on removing the bracing the flat side broke in.
After ineffectual attempts to patch it, a concrete lining was placed,
as thick as would allow the introduction and turning of the pipe.
These were common bell and spigot pipe, 12 feet long, and were
made up with cement joints.

The pipe was placed in the shaft on the Boston side first,
and the concrete was brought up to the top of the steel caisson.
The tunnel pipe was then started at that shaft and laid toward
the Charlestown side.

A 3-inch pipe, provided with open tees, was suspended in
the roof of the tunnel, and each length of 42-inch pipe was con-
creted as it was placed. The concrete was mixed over the shaft
and dropped through a chute to a car that ran inside the pipe
already laid, and was then dumped, remixed and rammed by men
standing alongside of the pipe. (See Plate I.) Around the
joints the concrete was made stronger, and greater care was used to
make it. impervious to water.

When the pipes were all laid and concreted, the 3-inch pipe
in the roof was flushed with grout.

The shafts were protected by circular fenders, and also by
outer channel fenders as shown by Plate H.

This tunnel was completed about January 1, 1900. It is the
best one of the three, the only objection being the necessity of
pumping two drips.

In the River Street Tunnel, Plates J and K, the Brighton shaft
was sunk 90 feet, and the Cambridge shaft 60 feet. It was com-
menced by sinking the Cambridge shaft without the steel caisson
and running the tunnel in 80 feet without compressed air. At
that point the clay changed to a vein of sand, and the heading
came in, filling the tunnel for 40 feet and destroying the cross-
section.

The Brighton shaft was then sunk to a depth of 90 feet before
enough clay was found to turn a goose neck. The old shield
could not be used, because it was not large enough, and on ac-
count of the scarcity of steel it would have taken too long to pro-
cure a new one. As matters turned out it would have been better
to wait for a shield, but the borings seemed propitious and a head-
ing was started.

The enormous head made 36 pounds air pressure necessary and
also greatly increased the leakage, as much as 1,000,000 gallons
daily being pumped by three Knowles 5-inch pumps.

336 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

After going a short way, the roof material changed to sand
and continued so to the completion of the tunnel. "Cave-ins"
and "breakdowns"' were of everyday occurrence, and every in-
centive was used to keep the men at work.

Negroes were worked in one heading and white men in the
other, pitted against each other as to courage and record ; extra
time was given and shifts shortened, but under the heavy pres-
sure, with the temperature at 1050 and the slow laborious methods
necessary in the uncertain heading, progress was very slow, and
it was only the indomitable courage of the contractor that carried
the work to a successful completion.

The general method of procedure was as shown in Plate E,
Fig. 5. Poling planks were driven ahead, a couple of feet of the
sand was excavated, the surface was smeared with clay to hold the
air and a bulkhead was thrown across. The clay bottom was then
excavated, the lagging brought forward and a new start made in
the sand. Progress was from one to three feet a shift in each
heading.

The results in alignment were such that it was necessary to
make two offsets of 2 feet each, to keep the transit line in the tun-
nel. Nevertheless the closing error was less than 0.05 foot.

The lagging was lathed and plastered with cement, and about
6 inches of concrete was placed in the bottom while the air pres-
sure was still on. The air lock was then removed, and six 12-foot
lengths of 48-inch pipe, with the drip, were lowered in the Cam-
bridge shaft, the lock was replaced, and these were hauled through
to the Brighton shaft (see Plate B, Fig. 5), where two lengths
were supported in the shaft while the drip was set and concreted.

These two pipes were then set and concreted, and a 6-inch
drain pipe was laid in the concrete connecting the tunnel with
that part of the shaft above the pipe. The five other lengths
were laid from the drip in the tunnel, and the 6-inch drain pipe
was continued beneath them. Owing to the rapid rise in the tun-
nel, shown in Plate K, this had the effect of materially reducing
the head, and when six more pipes were laid in the tunnel in the
same way, an attempt was made to proceed without the air pres-
sure.

There was too much leakage, however, for the three pumps in
the Brighton shaft, and there was no room for more pumps.
Moreover the pumps or their connections were continually break-
ing down and it was decided to lay the pipe under pressure.

The general methods were about the same as those used in
the Charlestown Tunnel, except the plastering of the lagging, the

SUBAQUEOUS TUNNELS FOR GAS CONDUITS. 337

laying of the 6-inch drain and the handling of the concrete. The
concrete was mixed on top, lowered through the air lock in canvas
bags, twelve or sixteen at a trip, and wheeled to the point of laying
in three or four barrows, four bags filling one barrow. As each
man dumped his load, he wheeled his empty barrow into the pipe
to make room for the man behind him.

The proportions of the concrete were : 1 cement, 23^2 sand, 5
broken stone. In two hours this set sufficiently to permit walking
over.

As a rule three 8-hour shifts of 9 men each were employed in
driving the tunnel, and progress was about three feet each shift.

In laying and concreting the pipe, there were two 11 -hour
shifts of from 11 to 13 men, averaging one pipe each shift. There
were eight batches of concrete to each length of pipe. The men
received 23 cents an hour when working under pressure.

The plant included 3 locomotive boilers, 2 upright boilers, one
5-drill and one 4-drill unjacketed compressor, and one 14-inch
and one 10-inch jacketed compressor, one 6-inch and three 5-
inch steam pumps at 75 pounds and no pounds steam pressure,
respectively, three 3-inch pulsometers and two 4-inch ejectors.

As in the other tunnels, all joints on the inside of the pipe
were filled flush with cement.

The cost of the Maiden Tunnel was $35.34 per lineal foot
for driving the tunnel, $15.50 per lineal foot for the pipe and
$4.80 per lineal foot for laying the pipe and grouting, or $55.64
per lineal foot complete.

On the Charlestown tunnel the cost was as follows : Driving
and .fenders, $87.45 per foot ; pipe, $4.35 per foot ; laying, $9.60
per foot; total cost, $101.40 per foot.

The quantities were as follows : Concrete, 420 cubic yards ; 42-
inch pipe, 85 tons ; cement, 260 barrels, at $2.35 to $2.75 ; sand,
200 tons, at 70 cents; stone, 600 tons, at $1.

At River Street Tunnel the cost was as follows : Driving,
$48.84 per foot; laying, $45.45 per foot; pipe, $5.36 per foot; total
cost, $99.65 per foot.

The quantities were: Concrete, 560 yards; stone, 1303 tons, at
$1.10; sand, 97 loads, at $1.60; 48-inch pipe, 169 tons; cement,
859 barrels, at $2.35 to $2.75.

Cost of labor on concrete in tunnel about $5 per cubic yard.
Cost complete of concrete in tunnel about $9 per cubic yard.

While driving the River Street Tunnel, owing to its uncertain
termination, it became necessary to lay a temporary pipe on the
River Street Bridge and to sink a small siphon at the draw. A

338 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

20-inch pipe was, therefore, laid on the bridge, and a siphon, made
from 1 2-inch threaded wrought iron pipe, was sunk through the
bridge by cutting holes 4 feet square for the legs of the siphon,
lowering them through and connecting up with the extension piece
before sinking them into the water.

The whole work was done and gas was flowing inside of six
days from ordering the stock. The little pipe was eminently suc-
cessful, there being only a head of 1 inch water pressure lost in
passing the siphon, and the pipe was easily removed when the
tunnel was completed.

The amount of gas passed at that time was 2,500,000 feet per
diem, and the pressure was 7 inches to 10 inches water column.

The choice between driving a tunnel and sinking a siphon
is naturally governed by the location. Where the requirements
of depth and width are great and the obstruction to navigation
while sinking the siphon is serious, especially in the case of a
double draw, the tunnel is cheapest in any ground. The same may
be true of a single draw in good ground. Where the pipe, for any
cause, cannot be supported by the bridge, and the approaches are
exposed to ice and heavy shipping (a condition requiring strong
fenders) and where the earth is propitious, it may be cheaper to
tunnel the entire river, as was done at Maiden Bridge.

Where the channel may be obstructed by temporary piling,
and where the requirements as to preserving the channel are not
burdensome, a siphon is undoubtedly the cheapest, as in the cross-
ing of Island End River, now under way. It is needless to say that
a tunnel is alzvays the best.

In these tunnels it has been demonstrated that in good clay,
and in good clay only, a tunnel can be advantageously driven
without a shield under compressed air ; that the segmental lagging,
as used by Mr. Haskin, is an easy, economical and stable method ;
that breaks, even in bad ground, are neither necessarily dangerous
nor prohibitively difficult ; that a large tunnel, with concrete between
the pipe and the lagging, although more costly than a smaller
tunnel grouted, makes much tighter work; that turned and bored
joints are a delusion and a snare; that it pays to point up the
joints on the inside of the pipe with cement; that cement joints give
the best results, and are the cheapest and most convenient ; that
lathing and plastering the lagging with cement, while under com-
pressed air, is an advantage.

Mr. G. H. Finn is the general manager and Mr. L. J. Hirt
was the chief engineer of the Massachusetts Pipe Line Company.
W. E. Silsbee had immediate charge of the Maiden and Charles-

SUBAQUEOUS TUNNELS FOR GAS CONDUITS. 339

town Tunnels, while E. C. Hayden had immediate charge of the
River Street Tunnel.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Howard A. Carson. — I have been very much interested
indeed in the paper which has been read to-riight. It recalls the
experiences of myself and those associated with me some years ago
when I was engineer of the Metropolitan Sewerage System. All
that is ancient history now, but I refer to it at the request of the
President and Secretary. The author has alluded to the tunnel
crossing near the Maiden Bridge beside the new gas tunnel. On
that there were some interesting experiences. Mr. Haskin was
connected with that. During one serious blow-out the men were
compelled to leave the tunnel, and the whole tunnel was filled with
water in about an hour. This tunnel was at one point so close to
the bed of the stream that, among other experiences, was the find-
ing of a human skeleton in the mud at the top of the tunnel.

The engineer of to-day, tunneling under deep beds of water,
is very much more fortunately placed than those of a generation
ago, before compressed air for tunneling was brought into use.
You have all read of the various attempts which were made to
build a tunnel under the Thames early in the last century, of the
very slow progress and how several of these attempts were given
up. A long time was used, seventeen years, in making the first
successful Thames tunnel. The engineer now, if he has occa-
sion to go under a stream of moderate depth, can make use of
either of several processes.

In the work on the Metropolitan Sewerage System there were
six passages built under tidal estuaries, "siphons," we called them;
one on the outer end of Deer Island, about eighteen hundred feet
into the sea ; one under Belle Isle Inlet ; one under Shirley Gut ;
one under the Mystic River, at the point spoken of by the author
this evening; one under the Maiden River, and one under Chelsea
Creek. In two of these cases, Belle Isle Inlet and the Maiden
River, the cofferdam process was used. At Maiden River, the
cofferdam was quite successful; that is, there were no serious
mishaps of any kind ; the trench was flooded once, but there was
no serious trouble. At Belle Isle Inlet, however, where the coffer-
dam was also tried, the process, as carried on, was very unsatis-
factory, the trench being flooded many times. It was finally neces-
sary to make use of somewhat novel processes for finishing up the
work.

As most of you remember, a novel method was used at the
outer end of Deer Island extending into the sea, and in crossing

34Q ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Shirley Gut, in sinking and connecting large pipes made of brick
and concrete. In these two cases, so far as rapidity and economy
of the work was concerned, the results were superior to any
of the other methods tried. At Shirley Gut the pipes were from
48 to 65 feet long and over 8 feet external diameter. They were
made on the shore above high tide and moved down to low tide by
means of blocks and rollers, as in moving houses. The ends were
stopped up, so as to make the pipes water-tight. They were finally
floated to their proper position, and methods taken to place them
accurately on the bottom, join them together and afterwards
remove the bulkheads.

Some allusion has been made to the East Boston Tunnel. I
hope most of the members will visit this tunnel within a few
days. The work has now progressed, by the shield, something
like 240 feet. The work is temporarily arrested, to put in the air
locks. Before the compressed air is used will be an excellent
time for the members to view the whole situation. As you will
learn all about it then, I will say now but a word for those who
cannot go.

The general method employed there is almost precisely the
same as that which was used on the subway tunnel on Tremont
Street. There are two drifts about 8 feet square, made and tim-
bered by an ordinary tunneling process. These drifts are about
30 feet apart horizontally, outside to outside. In each of these
drifts one of the side walls of the tunnel is built. The shield
of the tunnel is later moved along, running on top of and resting on
these side walls. The arch of the tunnel is built under the tail end
of the shield, and, of course, joins with the side walls just men-
tioned. The invert is put in later. The hydraulic jacks, which
push the shield along, react against cast-iron rods imbedded in
the masonry of the arch, the same as on Tremont Street.

The main difference between the Tremont Street tunnel and
that of East Boston is that, in the latter case, the arch is of con-
crete, while in the Tremont Street tunnel it was of brick. The
cross-section in East Boston is considerably taller. The arch, in-
stead of being very flat, is a semicircle.

Mr. C. M. Saville. — The Metropolitan Water Board has
just completed a small tunnel between Chelsea and Charlestown.
The contractor for the gas tunnels also did the work for the
water board, and many of the men were employed on all of the
work. The methods employed on our work were substantially
the same as the author has so interestingly described. Two
water shafts were sunk, one on each side of the channel and about

SUBAQUEOUS TUNNELS FOR GAS CONDUITS. 341

140 feet apart. These shafts were about 65 feet deep, and con--
nected at their bottoms by a drift under the channel. The net in-
side diameter of each shaft and drift was 6 feet, and they were
lined throughout with a foot of brick masonry laid in Portland
cement mortar. The same shield was used as has been described
by the author, but it was remodeled to work the heading, which had
a gross diameter of about 9 feet. The material encountered was
mostly sand containing considerable water. Much difficulty was
encountered in keeping the shield on line and to grade, and, after
the drift was about three-fourths completed, the shield was re-
moved and the remainder of the work was done with poling
boards. . After the tunnel was completed, a 24-inch ordinary cast-
iron water pipe was laid in it by the maintenance department, and
this pipe is now in use.

During the progress of the work, an article appeared in one
of the Boston papers purporting to be a description of the meth-
ods employed, and among other interesting points brought out
was the statement that for every pound of material excavated a
pound of air was pumped in to take its place.

Mr. Robert A. Shailer. — I do not know that I have any-
thing to say except that I have enjoyed listening to Mr. Cum-
mings's paper on subaqueous tunnels.

I am sure that an ordinary mud digger like myself cannot be
expected to have much to say of interest to this society, which
certainly contains among its members very prominent engineers,
probably the best engineers in the country.

In the paper just read considerable stress was laid upon the
use of compressed air for the purpose of keeping out water, and
the thought occurred to me that possibly you are not all familiar
with the use of compressed air for the purpose of keeping clay
from flowing or swelling, as it is usually termed.

We have been working for a number of years at Cleveland,
Ohio, constructing a tunnel 9 feet inside diameter, with 12-inch
brick walls and 26,000 feet long. The 22,000 feet already com-
pleted have been constructed through a very soft, swelling clay ; in
fact, a material which it would be almost impossible to handle
without compressed air. It contains no water to speak of, and
if any of you were to go into the tunnel under our usual pressure
of 28 to 30 pounds of air, the clay would seem practically dry
and quite stiff and hard, and it would be difficult to realize what it
would be without the air pressure.

In sinking shaft No. 2, which is composed of cast-iron cylin-
ders extending from above the surface of Lake Erie down nearly

342 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

to the top of the arch, which is at about grade minus 94, and then
underpinned with brick, we had occasion to take the air pressure
off, and where square openings like windows were left for the
purpose of breaking out into the drifts, I have seen clay flow in
through said openings and drop off in large chunks, while with
the air pressure the clay appeared still and stable. Last fall,
when one of the air locks in the tunnel got to leaking, so that
the pressure was almost entirely lost, the clay flowed into the
completed tunnel so as to nearly fill it up solid for some twenty
feet.

Mr. Carson has just spoken of our being about to put on the
air pressure in the East Boston Tunnel. We anticipate no trouble
or danger from water in carrying on this work, but we do expect to
have swelling clay, and it is to hold the clay that we are installing
the pneumatic plant.

There is another use of air pressure in which we have had
some experience, and that is for the dilution of explosive or marsh
gas, as it comes into the tunnel.

At Cleveland the whole ground is saturated with this gas,
and chemical analysis shows that even with great care we have
from 24 to lYz per cent, of this gas at all times in the air which
the men breathe. If our pressure goes down, the percentage of
gas becomes greater, so that we are reasonably sure that the use
of compressed air tends to keep the gas out. The mixture of 5 or 6
per cent, of gas is exceedingly explosive, while a mixture of 9 to 10
per cent, is not. This may seem paradoxical, but it is true. What
I have always feared is that, as the gas must flow into the tunnel
practically pure, there must be, somewhere between that and its
dilution down to 1^ per cent., a point at which the mixture is
dangerous. We therefore watch our electric wire connections,
and take all the precaution we can and carry our inlet pipe straight
up to the heading, so as to dilute the gas there.

Compressed air has been used to retard the flow of water into
tunnels where the head was so great that sufficient pressure could
not be maintained to keep the water out entirely. Under these
conditions the work of necessity must be carried on very slowly and
at great expense.

Mr. W. W. Cummings (by letter). — An inverted siphon pos-
sibly a little out of the ordinary line was placed in Everett, Mass.,
May 21. Its characteristics were its economy and its rigidity, not-
withstanding its rather unusual length.

The Harbor Commissioners required that a clear waterway 60
feet wide and 18 feet below mean low water should be preserved.

'x/y'iaMHtgxte

SUBAQUEOUS TUNNELS FOR GAS CONDUITS. 343

The river bottom at this point is but 4 feet below mean low water,
the channel as yet not having been dredged.

As shown by the drawings, the siphon was made up of a 30-
inch riveted steel pipe f inch thick, the legs being about 32 feet long
and the extension piece about 74 feet long on centers ; and an
inclosing box 3 feet 6 inches square, made up of 6 x 6-inch spruce
corner posts, with 3 x 4-inch sticks spiked to them for the nailing of
the 2-inch cover planks.

It was designed to make the siphon as light as possible.
Therefore the steel pipe was figured to be self-supporting when
hung by the two legs, and only sufficient concrete was added to sink
the pipe and its inclosing box. The sides of this box formed two
trusses, calculated to support the box and the contained concrete
when hung by the legs of the siphon, or to have sufficient excess of
strength, when submerged and supported at its center, to make up
the deficiency in the steel pipe when supported at that point. Par-
ticular care to secure an even bottom in the dredging was there-
fore unnecessary. The angles of the siphon were reinforced by
i-J-inch tie-rods and two 6 x 6-inch struts bearing on pieces of
angle iron.

The weight of the siphon complete was about 60 tons, or 900
pounds per lineal foot; and 9 tons, or 125 pounds per lineal foot,
when submerged.

The pipe and the extension piece of the box were constructed
on shore. These were then placed on temporary piling in the chan-
nel by means of a lighter, and concrete, composed of one part Star
cement to one part unscreened fine gravel, was added after smear-
ing the joints of the steel pipe with neat cement mortar. The legs
of the box were then carried up, the concrete being added as the
work progressed, and the whole was allowed to set for six days.
Particular care was taken to make the concrete impervious to water.
In placing the siphon, three lighters were used, one large one on
one leg and two smaller ones on the other. When lifted free from
the blocking, the deflection at the center was about i-J inches. The
lowering consumed about two hours. When in place, the pipe was
under a maximum head of 26 feet, and remained twenty-four hours
without showing any leaks. It was then filled with water and
allowed to settle to its bearing.

The whole siphon, with the exception of the 6 x 6-inch and
3 x 4-inch spruce timber, was made from the scrap pile at a cost of
$592.62. The material new would have cost about $685, making a
total new of about $9 per lineal foot. The dredging cost $1800,
and the placing about $600.
[31]

344 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Without searching the records, it is believed that this is the
longest and largest siphon in the vicinity, that of the Boston Water
Department at the Warren Bridge being 24 inches in diameter and
55 feet long, and that of the Metropolitan Water Board at Saugus
River being 20 inches in diameter and 48 feet 8 inches long. This
latter one cost $23 per lineal foot. It might be added that the
siphon was subject to extremely rough usage while being lowered,
but it was perfectly rigid and the concrete showed no signs of
cracking.

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STEEL CASING AND AIR CHAMBER

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JOURNAL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES W. W. CUMMINGS, SUBAQUEOUS TUNNELS FOR GAS CONDUIT8 PLATE B

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

IN THE

ALLLSTON TUNNEL

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS PIPE LINE GAS CO.

SCALE 1:48

PLAN AND PROFILE

SHOWING LOCATION OF MAINS

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS PIPE LINE GAS CO.

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CHARLESTOWN DISTRICT, BOSTON

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MASSACHUSETTS PIPE LINE GAS CO.

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PLAN OF TUNNEL

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MASSACHUSETTS PIPE LINE GAS CO.

SCALE 1:480

PROFILE OF TUNNEL

UNDER CHARLES RIVER

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SCALESi VERTICAL 1:160

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 345

THE INCREASING ELEVATION OF FLOODS IN THE
LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

By Linus W. Brown, Member Louisiana Engineering Society.

[Read before the Society, March 11, 1901.*]
My acquaintance with the Mississippi River began in 1!
twenty-one years ago, and for the past fifteen years I have been
directly connected, officially and otherwise, with the levee work at
this point, and I cannot fail to appreciate the material changes
which have taken place during these two decades, in dimension
of levees required to properly protect this section against inunda-
tion.

Twenty years ago the levees were of very small dimensions
and very low in elevation as compared with those now existing.
As I remember, the levees in the third district were but little
larger than a well-banked potato row, and were located from
75 to 100 feet from the front street (Xorth Peters), and the ele-
vation of levees along the Commercial front was several feet lower
than they exist to-day.

The serious and most important question presented is, what
do the facts, as gleaned from the two decades just passed, teach
us. and what conclusions are to be drawn? In my opinion, the
facts, as presented, most conclusively demonstrate that to secure
in the future the same protection against inundation as in the
past and at the present time, there will be required a continual
raising and enlarging of the levees, and the conclusions to be drawn
are that in a very few decades (taking the past two decades as a
criterion) the construction of levees to properly secure us against
inundation will become a prodigious undertaking, both as an
engineering feat and as a revenue consumer, owing to the very
large proportions that will be required.

The question, what will be the height of levees for proper
future protection against the inundation of the Mississippi Delta?
demands immediate attention, and should be given the most care-
ful thought and consideration. The maxim : "He only is free from
danger who, even when safe, is on his guard," embodies the
sentiment which should pervade every interest throughout the
Mississippi Delta, and which should stimulate us to inaugurate at
once a careful investigation and to apply such remedies or adopt

♦Manuscript received May 20, 1901. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

346 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

such methods as will measurably well assure us of a moderate
maximum elevation of levees for future protection. It is not too
soon to inaugurate the necessary measures for a thorough inves-
tigation and secure the co-operation of all interests, and invite the
attention of, and secure the necessary assistance from, the Federal
Government to meet the issues which are now most apparent of
future consummation, unless thwarted.

What are the causes of the constant increase in elevation of
floods in the Lower Mississippi, why are the maximum floods
sporadic ; seldom, if ever, occurring in yearly succession, why
should the maximum floods increase in elevation when a corre-
sponding increase of discharge is not, by investigation, apparent,
and why did the normal flood of 1898, discharging very con-
siderably less volume than the great flood of 1851 or of 1890, re-
quire greater flood elevation? The United States Government
gaging of May 2, 1898, shows that the elevation of flood was 16.65
feet on gage, and the discharge 1,084,000 cubic feet per second,
whereas on February 26, 1890, the flood elevation was 14.7 feet
on gage, and the discharge 1,422,000 cubic feet per second, which
shows that the flood of 1890 discharged 338,000 cubic feet per
second (or 30 per cent.) more water, and at an elevation of 0.95
feet (or 0.6 of 1 per cent.) less than that of 1898. On March 17,
1851, the gaging as recorded shows a discharge of 1,153,000 cubic
feet per second, with a flood elevation of 14.8 feet on gage.

When the causes are ascertained, what are the remedies to be
applied or the methods to be adopted to maintain a comparatively
uniform elevation of maximum floods?

These are the questions to be solved, and they should receive
the immediate and earnest consideration of every interest through-
out the Mississippi Valley. And I will predict that the proper solu-
tion of these important questions will keep every member of this
society of engineers busy for some time to come. The matter
is of such paramount importance that it should enlist the very best
endeavors of each and every one of us, and we should not be sat-
isfied until we have secured some measurable degree of success.

Before attempting to lay before you an outline of my views
of the cause producing the conditions, or the remedy to apply, I
would refer to the following statistics and facts to amplify and
form base for the conclusions and suggestions I may present.

All elevations used in this paper will refer to the Carrollton
gage of the Mississippi River Commission, zero of which is 20.91
feet above Cairo Datum or 0.35 feet below mean ocean level ; and
all velocities and discharges referred to are those contained in the

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 347

reports of the Mississippi River Commission. The distance from
the Carrollton gage to mean ocean level in Gulf is, for the calcu-
lation of slopes, assumed at 120 miles. The reports of the Missis-
sippi River Commission do not contain statistics as to elevations
at the heads of passes or at Fort Jackson, excepting from 1891
to 1898 at the latter point. I also note the incompleteness of the
reports as to elevations, discharges and velocity of the river at
any point, in that they cover only a few days of the year and often
do not cover the maximum conditions. The discussion of the
subject at this time may require some deductions to be made, and
any conclusions reached will be understood as being susceptible of
such modification as more full and correct data may conclusively
determine to be correct and proper.

I remember the newspaper reports of the flood of 1874, which
flood overtopped the then existing levees, and later I became
familiar with the effects of this great flood, which reached the
then extraordinary maximum elevation of 15.7 feet on gage, or
15.35 feet above sea level, although the elevation of • this flood was
only 6 inches higher than that of 1828, forty-six years previous,
and was not as high by 0.2 of a foot as the flood of 1862, as re-
corded in the Government records. The average slope of this flood
of 1874 to sea level was 0.128 of a foot per mile, or about 1 foot
in 8 miles. The records of velocity and discharge are not em-
braced in the Government reports, but assuming the gagings of
March 14, 1891, when elevation of flood was 15.6, as a comparative
estimate of the velocity and discharge for flood of 1874, we have
6.95 feet velocity and 1,202,000 cubic feet discharge per second.

The flood elevation of' 1874 was not surpassed until 1890,
when it reached an elevation of 16.1 and in 1892 of 17.35 and
1893 of 17.45, and the greatest of all floods occurred in 1897
when the maximum elevation was 19.17 feet or 3.47 feet higher
than the extraordinary flood of 1874, twenty-three years previous.

The elevation of flood of 1897 at Carrollton was 18.82 feet
above ocean level, and the average slope from Carrollton to ocean
was 0.156 of a foot per mile or 1 foot in 6.3 miles, or 22 per
cent, greater than the slope of 1874, and while the Government
reports do not give the gaging as to velocity and discharge on
the day when tlie greatest elevations were noted, — viz, May 13, they
give, for May 18, a velocity of 7.3 feet and a discharge of 1,350,000
cubic feet per second, gage reading 18.7 feet, and this gaging is
the greatest, both as to velocity and discharge, of any shown in
the reports, which further shows that while the difference in

348

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

elevation of the flood of 1897 above the sea level was 22 per cent,
more than that of 1874, twenty-three years previous, the dis-
charge was only 12 per cent, greater.

The history of the great floods, as recorded, is as follows :

Gage
Dates. reading.

1828 — April i 15.20

1849 — March 15 15.20

185 1 — March 27 15.40

1858 — May 10 15.10

1859 — May 4 15.60

1862 15.90

1874 — April 16 15.70

1890 — March 13 16.10

1892 — June 10 17.35

1893— June 22 17.45

1897 — May 13 19.17

1898 — April 25 15.90

1899 — April 21 16.00

The velocity and discharge for the years 1851, 1890, 1892,
1893 and 1897 are the results of gaging on these dates as contained
in the reports of the Mississippi River Commission, but those
for the other years are not given in the reports, and the velocity
and discharge for these years are interpolated from the records
of other years when gage readings or elevation of floods were the
same, thus :

Height
above
sea level.

Slope
per
mile.

Velocity.

Discharge

14-85

O.I23

5-90

1,099,000

14-85

O.I23

5.00

1,099,000

I5.05

O.I25

5-99

I,Il8,O0O
I,l68,O0O

15.25

0.127

6.00

I,I56,000

15-55

O.I30

6.68

1,243,000

15-35

O.I28

6-75

I,I75,O0O

15-75

O.131

6.90

1,292,000

17.00

O.141

5.87

1,079,000

17.10

O.1425

5.82

I,II3,000

18.72

O.156

7-30

1,350,000

15-55

O.I30

5-73

1,024,000

15-65

0.135

6.81

I,l82,0O0

ie year 1828
1849
1859
1862

1874
1898
1899

s from records of March 25, 1851
28, 1891
" 24, 1890
" 19, 1890
18, 1891
June 9, 1892
March 16, 1891

There is recorded no gaging since 1892 for flood elevation of
15.9 and 16 feet for years 1898 and 1899 respectively, and the
interpolations made are clearly on the side of very greatest possible
maximum velocity and discharge for these years. It is most ap-
parent, from the records, that the discharge for later years is much
less than in former years for same elevation of flood, as is shown
by the records and gagings of the normal flood of 1898, when the
elevations were from 15.5 to 15.65 feet, and the maximum dis-
charge was from 1,049,000 to 1,087,000 cubic feet as compared
with that of all the great floods from 1828 to 1890, when the ele-

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

349

vation ranged from 15.2 to 15.9 feet and the discharge from 1,099,-
000 to 1,243,000 cubic feet per second.

The record of the gaging on May 4, 1898, shows that with an
elevation of 15.65 feet the discharge was 1,049,000 cubic feet with a
velocity of 5.97 feet ; and it is perhaps safe to assume that the maxi-
mum volume of discharge of future great floods will approximate
but not exceed 1,400,000 cubic feet per second; hence the elevation
of flood on May 4, 1898, to discharge a maximum flood of 1,400,-
000 cubic feet at 6 feet velocity, with cross-section of 175,600 feet
at elevation of 15.65 feet on gage, and assuming the width of river
between levees at 4000 feet, would be 14.4 feet higher, or 30.05
feet on gage, and with increasing velocities would be as follows :

Velocity 6.25 — 12. 1 feet higher or 27.75 on gage.

6.50— 9.9

6-75— 7-9
7.00 — 6.1

7.25— 4-3
7-50— 3-i
8.00 — 0.0

25-55
23-55
21-75
19-95
18-75
15-75

Hence, to secure in 1898 an elevation of flood slope not ex-
ceeding 16 feet on Carrollton gage, a velocity of 8 feet per second
would have been required to pass the maximum flood volume of
1,400,000 cubic feet, and with a velocity of 7.3 feet per second, and
a discharge of 1,350,000 cubic feet, as gaged on May 18, 1897,
producing a flood elevation of 18.7 feet, the maximum flood ele-
vation of 1898, to pass this volume at this velocity, would have been
only 2.3 feet higher or 17.95 on gage, or 0.75 feet 9 inches lower,
which clearly demonstrates that the floods with maximum eleva-
tions, even with equal volume of discharge, cannot occur in suc-
cession, for the reason that the avenues for passage of water are
scoured out by the first flood, and the conditions to retard the
passage cannot be formed in the interval of time, between two flood
periods. The velocities shown above, and which exist in the Lower
Mississippi, are very heavy, and even the lowest is not consistent
with any reasonable security of bed or banks, as is shown by the
following experiments of Bazalgette, in which he found the velocity
required to remove materials as follows :

Fine clay 0.25 feet per second. '

Sand 0.50

Coarse sand 0.66

Fine gravel 1 .00

Pebbles 2.00

Stones, egg size 3.00

350 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

And the observations of eminent hydraulicians, as referred
to by Gauguillet & Kutter, give mean velocities required to abrade
river beds and banks as follows :

River mud 0.33 feet per second.

Sand, size of anise seed 0.46

Clay and loom 0.66

Sand, size of peas 0.79

Common river sand 0.92

Coarse gravel and small cobblestone 3.93

Angular flint stone, egg size 4.23

Soft slate 6.45

Stratified rock 7.86

Hard rock 13.12

From which it is not surprising that with a current having a
velocity of from 5 to 7.3 feet per second the alluvial banks of
the Mississippi River are abraded.

The facts, as presented above, make prominent the further
very pertinent question, what will be the rate of increase of future
maximum flood elevations? Referring to the above list of great
floods, we find that from 1828 to 1874, a period of forty-six years,
the increase was only 0.5 of a foot, or at a rate of 0.011 of a foot
per year or 1 foot in ninety years, while the flood of 1897 was 3.47
feet higher than the flood of 1874, or a rise of 3.47 feet in twenty-
three years, or at a rate of 0.15 of a foot per year or 1 foot in six
and one-half years. It will be noted, further, that in 1890 the
elevation of maximum flood was 16. 1 or 0.4 of a foot higher than
that of 1874, or 0.4 of a foot increase in sixteen years, or at rate
of 0.025 foot per year or 1 foot in forty years ; while the flood of
1890 was 3.07 feet below that of 1897, or an increase of maximum
flood elevation of 3.07 feet in seven years, or at rate of 0.44 foot
per year, or a foot in about two and one-half years. It is also in-
teresting and instructive to note that the maximum elevation of
floods since 1897, while they have been considered as normal, were
all considerably higher than those of the great flood periods prior
to 1890.

A careful consideration of the facts above presented, showing
the increase of elevation of maximum floods, would determine, as
conservative, a rate of increase in future of 1 foot in five years, and
it is to be feared, and may be expected, that this increase will be
exceeded. Hence, unless means are adopted to thwart the gradual
increase of maximum elevation of floods, the levees in 1950 will
be 10 feet higher than at present, under which condition the whole
delta will be confiscated for levee protection, and commerce on the
Lower Mississippi will be rendered wholly impracticable.

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 351

Mr. Chas. Ellet, who represented the United States Govern-
ment in connection with river investigation in the year 1851, was
sufficiently bold to assert that, to sustain a flood of the intensity
of that of 1 85 1, the levees must be made 2 feet higher than they
then existed, from Red River to New Orleans ; for which assertion
he was, in 1861, severely criticised by the United States Govern-
ment's representatives in charge of river matters. As a matter
of fact, the floods of 1851 were no doubt as intense as those of
1897, and while the maximum discharge at Carrollton, as gaged,
was 1,186,000 cubic feet per second, and that of 1897 1,350,000
cubic feet per second, the volume passing from the river into
the sea between the Red River and New Orleans, was equal to or
greater than the difference between the measured discharge ; and
the prophecy of Mr. Ellet has been more than realized, as in lieu
of 2 feet, levees to properly protect the alluvial lands are now
fully 5 feet higher than they existed in 1851.

The estimate made by the Government engineers in 1861 for
the proper and absolute protection of the alluvial lands along the
Mississippi River, from Cairo to the Gulf, in addition to the value
of levees then existing, was $17,000,000, and the value of then
existing levees was placed at $9,000,000, making the total value of
the ultimate and complete levee system $26,000,000. Since 1861
up to the present time, there have been expended upward of
$50,000,000, and the levees are yet incomplete ; and to properly pro-
tect the alluvial lands against inundation in the future, as far as
1950, the levee system alone, if built at once of proper proportions,'
will cost upward of $100,000,000, but a very much greater amount
will be expended by reason of the work of raising and enlarging
the levees. This will necessarily be required to be done gradually
and oftentimes as an emergency, and at no time will the alluvial
lands be absolutely free from danger of inundation, unless the in-
crease of flood elevations is restrained.

The facts above presented, and the conclusion to be drawn, are
most thoroughly convincing that the elevation of the surface of nor-
mal and extraordinary floods in the Lower Mississippi are in-
creasing, which conclusion presents, in contemplation, most unde-
sirable future conditions and invites our most serious attention.

The methods adopted in the treatment of rivers in Europe,
traversing alluvial territory, such as the Rhine, Vistula, Danube and
others, cannot be adopted, as these methods have utterly failed in
restraining an increase of the elevation of their floods ; and, again,
these rivers are very small in comparison with the Mississippi ; and
such measures as would increase, almost imperceptibly, the eleva-

352 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

tion of floods in these small rivers would make the increase in
the Mississippi River most apparent.

When the "all-levee system" was inaugurated and urged, be-
tween the years i860 and 1880, no marked increase in the eleva-
tion of floods was apparent ; in fact, the records show an increase
of only 0.9 of a foot from 1828 to 1890, a period of sixty-two years ;
while from 1890 to 1897, the records show an increase of 3.07 in
seven years ; and the engineering profession, more particularly the
Government engineers, in recommending the "all-levee system," did
not take into consideration the consequent and serious effect of in-
creasing the elevation of floods, the extent to which this elevation
would reach or the disastrous effects resulting therefrom. That
this reasoning is correct is established by the fact that in 1861 Cap-
tain Humphreys recommended the construction of a levee system
as being all that was essential, and estimated that the ultimate
cost of protecting the 29,000 square miles of alluvial territory
against inundation would be $17,000,000, whereas we have already
spent upward of $50,000,000, and, as above noted, will require not
less than $100,000,000 within the next forty years, unless the flood
elevation can be reduced or maintained at an elevation not ex-
ceeding 18 feet on the Carrollton gage.

That the "all-levee system" is a necessity no one can possibly
deny ; but, as is shown, a levee system without other equally im-
portant works will in a few years prove a disastrous failure. It is a
matter of universal record that the advocates of the "all-levee sys-
tem" have persistently condemned all suggestions which would
effect, by reducing, the elevation of floods, even when made by
prominent, accomplished, brilliant and learned members of the en-
gineering profession ; and it is now most apparent that these views
must be modified, and such measures considered and adopted as
will assist in the matter of reducing the elevation of floods of the
Mississippi River.

To refer briefly to the causes producing these high elevations
of floods in the Lower Mississippi, it would be pertinent to remark
that the power and force embodied in the Mississippi River at
high floods are such as to be beyond human hands or brains to
combat. The only measures that mankind can adopt, with any de-
gree of success, are those which are in line with nature's laws, and
to find the cause it is proper to make comparison between the
river, with the "all-levee system" only, as now existing, and alluvial
rivers having no levees, and see wherein they differ.

Were the Mississippi River not leveed in, and were no arti-
ficial works constructed along its banks, it would, when rising

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 353

above its normal bank, overflow, and deposit its sediment on the
adjacent banks and the surrounding country. As it gradually ele-
vated its banks and the surrounding- country, and gradually with-
held the water from overflowing, it would scour a channel of the
desired width and depth to convey the volume to the sea level at
such velocity as the bed would allow ; the elevation of the flood
height would be a purely natural one, coinciding with the dis-
tance and volume, and the elevation would gradually increase as the
river extended into the Gulf, which, under present conditions, is
less than 200 feet per year, and in 1000 years would be about 40
miles, or sufficient to raise the flood elevation at Carrollton about
1 foot. According to Government statistics it would take some-
thing like 720 years to raise the 29,000 square miles of alluvial
territory one foot ; so that, if the Alississippi River were left alone,
the time would be very remote when the elevation of floods would
increase 3.47 feet, as has taken place in twenty-three years, or be-
tween 1874 and 1897.

One of the main causes of the increase of flood elevations is
the construction of the levees on lines not calculated to maintain
a constant cross-section of the river, or especially of that portion
of volume which flows above the natural bank ; such construction
affords an opportunity for the volume to lose its velocity at points
where levees are placed comparatively far apart, and thus requires
an artificial head to cause the volume to resume its flow through
a more confined portion of the river. This elevation of the vol-
umes in the wide portions further reduces the slope and velocity
of river above, and, hence, affects the whole river and interferes
with any uniform velocity ; and, further, the low velocity thus pro-
duced at points is sufficient to form deposits and decrease cross-sec-
tion. This, in turn, causes further elevation of flood surface and pro-
duces at other points such intense velocity as to abrade the bed
and banks, and oftentimes materially increases the length of the
main channel. This is also true of points where the river itself and
levees are wide, as compared with other points where the river
and levees are narrow, producing relatively low and relatively
high velocities, rendering impossible any uniform velocity. Again,
there are places where the river is entirely too narrow to properly
pass the floods, and some of these narrow points are highly im-
proved, as at Xew Orleans.

Another cause for the increase of elevation of floods, and
fluctuations in elevations for equal volume of discharge, is the
changing of the bed of the river and the moving back of levees
around bends. This materially increases the distance to ocean

354 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

level, and thus reduces the slope and the average velocity, and
is further assisted by the great inequalities in the width between
levees, providing the conditions above outlined.

Another cause may be found in the accretions which form on
the bottom and sides of the channel on the apex sides of bends,
without a corresponding amount of abrasion on the concave side,
during seasons of normal floods. This condition may increase for
a year or two, when a flood with a very high elevation ensues, due
less to a greater volume than to the choked or diminished cross-
section of river channel.

The combination of all of these causes produces a constant stop
and start; retardation and acceleration of velocity, causing exces-
sive accretions at one point, and excessive abrasion at another,
cutting out a channel through a choked cross-section at one place
and depositing it in a cross-section of superabundant area at
another place until it in time becomes choked, and thus the eleva-
tion of the floods is constantly varying and steadily increasing, due
to the increase of resistance for channel to clear itself of deposits.
The yearly extension of the river into the Gulf, as affecting the
slope, is insignificant and requires no consideration as affecting
the elevation of floods, excepting for periods of time as marked by
centuries.

That the elevation of great floods is increased by reason of
greater volume cannot be conclusively determined in the affirmative.
Were the elevation of normal floods not increasing in practically the
same ratio as the elevation of the great floods, more consideration
could be given to the great increase in the volume of one great
flood over that of another.

The careful consideration of the records of great floods for
the past seventy years would clearly indicate that the volume is not
increasing, and there is every reason why the maximum volume
should not increase with the settling up and improvement of the
country over that of the great floods which occurred, when the
whole country tributary to the Mississippi was wholly unimproved.
The opening up and improving of the country has very largely
increased the percolation and retention of water on the lands, and
the installation of industrial enterprises retains large quantities
which formerly were precipitated to the Mississippi immediately
the warm season opened. With the further development of the
country, this volume, which will be retained and allowed to run
off gradually, will greatly decrease the maximum volume of future
floods, and even with the worst combinations and most undesirable
conditions as to the breaking up of seasons of cold weather, the

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 355

maximum volume of future floods should not exceed the maximum
volume of the great floods of the past. It is, however, possible,
and even probable, that very great future advantage will be se-
cured to the Lower Mississippi by the construction of further
works having for their object the further retention of water for
irrigation, or other purposes of the territory tributary to the
Mississippi, and thus entail a double benefit.

The suggestions as to the methods to adopt in order to secure
the very lowest possible permanent maximum flood elevation for the
Lower Mississippi (16 feet or less at Carrollton) are replete with
material for discussion and consideration.

The first steps toward securing satisfactory results would
he to provide a firm base or foundation for such conclusion as may
he reached, by the inauguration of measures to secure full and
complete data and information of all the conditions now existing
Avhich have a bearing on the subject, and to this end it would be
necessary to correlate, and place in such shape as can be utilized,
all the data secured by the United States Government and the
Mississippi River Commission, and all the reliable data which can be
furnished by levee boards, levee engineers or other parties, and
fill in with the best possible judgment, by interpolation or otherwise,
the data covering past conditions which are not attainable, and then
proceed to arrange for the securing of accurate data of all the
conditions, as to cross-section of channel throughout the whole
length of the Lower Mississippi ; make complete investigation as
to direction and intensity of currents, and of all abrasion and ac-
cretion of banks ; secure all data necessary to determine positively
the cause for any and all of the varied actions of the river, such as
accelerated and retarded velocities, shoaling and scouring of bed,
accretion and abrasion of banks ; also note all the conditions neces-
sary to determine the practicability of the adoption of such remedy
as may be determined upon. Make full investigation and survey
of all low alluvial lands, note all the conditions necessary to de-
termine as to the practicability of their utilization as relief avenues
for the floods, and at the same time assist in making these low
lands suitable for future agricultural enterprises; in fact, make
the whole investigation as nearly complete as possible, and thus
enable the whole subject to be studied and considered in all its
phases. This might perhaps result in the adoption of methods,
quite inexpensive and most efficient, not thought of now, for the
securing of the object sought to be obtained, and at the same time
provide very great advantages to industrial and commercial enter-
prises.

356 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

In the absence of full and complete data and information on
all points bearing on the subject, or rather in the light of such
information as is now before us, it would appear that, to provide
proper protection of the Mississippi Delta against inundation, there
must be provided, in addition to levee building, a reasonably uni-
form cross-section of river, especially for the volume flowing above
top of natural ground, that the levees should be located to provide
this requisite and that future location of levees should be deter-
mined by the calculation for volume and velocity of river at any
point, for the purpose of providing proper cross-section, rather than
by such physical condition as may exist, as is the present prac-
tice.

Measures must also be adopted by which the extensive caving,
by reason of constant and heavy abrasion of banks in bends, will
be measurably retarded. To accomplish this end, the heretofore
condemned suggestion looking to the removal of accretions on
bends or points can no doubt be practiced with great benefit. The
desired requisite to be secured, to maintain a low and uniform
elevation of floods, is a channel which is of such cross-section as to
flow, with a reasonable velocity, the volumes received. A careful
investigation of the channel, after each high water, will give the
data necessary to determine by calculation what work will be re-
quired in removing accretioning banks, bars or other obstructions
to secure the proper channel for the ensuing season.

Should the investigation disclose the fact, which in all prob-
ability it will, that at places the river is too narrow and the levees
too close, the latter must be removed, and conditions provided by
which the river will cut a channel of the requisite cross-section ;
where choked cross-sections exist at points where valuable improve-
ments are located on the adjacent banks, as at New Orleans, the
additional channel area required may be secured by a spill-way
extending from a point just above the city and connecting the river
at the English Turn ; the ends of this spill-way to be located
at an elevation of say 13 feet Carrollton gage, or such elevation
as may be determined as coincident with the volume, section and
velocity safe to pass New Orleans ; and the ends of the spill-way
to be made of masonry, impermeable to action of water, and thus
secure control of the volume it will convey. This spill-way will
assist in maintaining a velocity in the main channel past New
Orleans such as will not cause the heavy abrasion now sustained
by reason of the high velocity required to pass flood volume.

I am of the opinion that the suggestion made by Brigadier-
General B. S. Roberts, of the United States Army, to reclaim

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 357

waste swamps along the Lower Mississippi by utilizing the delta-
making material of the surplus water of the river, will, with some
modification, prove most beneficial to all interests, especially the
agricultural and sanitary interests of Louisiana ; and I am con-
vinced that such measures will also form a most important factor
in maintaining a correspondingly low and permanent elevation
of floods, will render unnecessary large future expenditure for levee
construction and will provide the greatest possible security against
inundation, notwithstanding the fact that the Government en-
gineers in charge of the Mississippi River improvements con-
demned and criticised the suggestion of General Roberts as having
no merit.

The measures I would suggest, as modifications of the plan
presented by General Roberts, would be such as not only affect the
flood slope of the river and vastly improve the lowlands, both from
a financial and sanitary point of view, but would further provide
an invaluable supply of water for irrigating the land during the
low-water season, which is not infrequently accompanied by a long
season of drouth. To this end, there would be located, at such
points as the survey and investigation would best determine, a
spill-way of such construction as to be positively free from danger
of washing out, the sill of which to be at such elevation as condi-
tions would determine. This spill-way would be connected, by
levees across the high ground adjacent to the river, with a large
reservoir or basin constructed directly in the low ground or swamps.
The size of this basin would be such as conditions may determine,
for illustration, say 10 miles long and 5 miles wide, embracing
an area of 50 square miles. This reservoir would be constructed by
dredges from the inside and the proper levees would be formed
around it to such height as may be determined, — say of sufficient
height to maintain the surface of water at an elevation of 5 feet
above the high land adjacent to river where the spill- way has
ceased to run. At such point as may be desired, in the levee forming
the reservoir, will be constructed a spill-way to allow the water from
the river to pass directly to the swamps, after filling the reservoir.
The surface of the swamps will be gradually raised by the deposits
from the river water, and any territory desired can be elevated
by construction of small levees to direct the flow after the water
leaves the reservoir. Thus, at small expense, the whole territory
adjacent to the reservoir will be elevated in a few years. In the
course of time, say twenty-five or thirty years, or when sufficient
filling has taken place, the spill-way and reservoir could be aban-
doned and new ones constructed at other points, and thus the alluvial

358 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

territory along the river would be constantly elevated, co-extensive
with, and perhaps at a greater rate than the increase of elevation of
floods from natural causes. The reservoir of the dimensions
above referred to, holding 5 feet of water, would contain 6,969,-
600,000 cubic feet of water when flood in the river recedes below
elevation of sill of spill-way ; and this volume of water could by
gravity be used to irrigate the adjacent lands during a dry season.
On the assumption of there being required for proper irrigation
an acre foot or a depth of 12 inches of water over the whole ter-
ritory to be irrigated, the volume would irrigate 160,000 acres
of land, and a low estimate of the value of such irrigation would
be $5 per acre, which would aggregate an advantage amounting
to $800,000 per annum or 10 per cent, on a capitalization of $8,000,-
000, not including the advantages accruing from the elevating of
these lands, making them productive, and at the same time removing
extensive malarial breeding areas and improving the sanitary con-
dition of the territory.

The dimensions of the spill-ways and reservoirs would be such
as would be determined by the survey and full consideration of the
location selected. Approximately, the spill-way would be 5000 feet
long and would have a maximum capacity of 60,000 cubic feet
per second, and it would be judicious that a sufficient number be
constructed to have an aggregate maximum discharge of 400,000
cubic feet per second, or say eight in number, located at such
points as to cover the low ground to best advantage and make the
connecting levees as short as possible. In the main, these large
spill-ways and reservoirs' should be located on the right bank, as
larger areas of lowland lie on this side of the river and the con-
nection with the sea is more direct; although several small spill-
ways and large reservoirs could be located to great advantage on
the left bank.

Closer investigation and experience will determine the volume
which can be, with best advantage, passed from the river to the
spill-way, but for economic interest the volume allowed to flow
over the lowlands, as proposed, should be as large as possible, and
perhaps it may be wise to exceed the volume of 400,000 cubic feet
per second above referred to. This may be done without decreas-
ing the velocity in the river sufficiently to form deposits. The
volume in the river, when it recedes to the sill of the spill-way, may
be most advantageously fixed at such volume as will produce a
velocity not exceeding 5 feet per second, or with maximum dis-
charge of about 800,000 cubic feet per second.

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 359

As above represented, the annual value of spill-way and reser-
voir for irrigation would approximate $800,000 for each spill-way
having a capacity of 60,000 cubic feet per second and reservoir
embracing 50 square miles, which, for eight, or sufficient to dis-
charge 400,000 cubic feet per second, with corresponding reservoir
capacity, would amount to $6,400,000 per annum, or 10 per cent,
on a capitalization of $64,000,000. The cost of the spill-ways and
reservoirs would depend on location, but approximately the cost
of each would not exceed $600,000, not including the value of the
land occupied.

The foregoing, however, does not represent all of the direct ad-
vantages which would be secured. The elevating and reclaiming
of the lowland will, in time, produce an advantage of enormous
value. Land now worth $1.25 per acre will become the most fertile
and productive in the Union, and the crops grown will yield a reve-
nue equal to 10 per cent, on a capitalization of from $50 to $150 per
acre.

The suggestion, as will be observed, contemplates the delivery
of water on to the lowlands at such velocity and in such manner
as will admit of deposits forming adjacent to the reservoir, or at
any point desired, by the construction of a small supplemental
levee, and obviate entirely the high velocities -and the heavy abra-
sion of land, and uncontrollable points of deposit which are se-
cured by a sill and side levee to the lowland, which is practically
a leveed crevasse ; and further secure the irrigating reservoirs. It
would be pertinent to remark that the irrigation of our lands is a
progression which in the very near future will be most fully ap-
preciated, and will be adopted wherever an opportunity offers.
For the purpose of irrigation, large reservoirs with small spill-
ways could be placed along the Upper Mississippi.

Allowing that 400,000 cubic feet per second is passed by eight
spill-ways and allowed to deposit on low ground for an average
period of 120 days each year, and that the water contains', of solids,
1 part in 1500 parts, the deposit per year would be 5 inches deep
over an area of 250,000 acres, or 5 feet deep in 12 years, or on
an average it would fill 63,470 acres 1 foot deep each year, and in
100 years it would fill 6,347,000 acres 1 foot deep.

Recapitulating the calculations : 400,000 cubic feet per second
for 120 days would deliver on the lowlands 4,147,200,000,000
cubic feet of water, and on basis of 1 part solid in 1500 parts, the
amount of deposit would be 2,764,800,000 cubic feet of earth, or
102,400,000 cubic yards, or 153,600,000 tons, or 5,120,000 carloads
of 30 tons each, and allowing 30 feet to the car would make a
32

2,6o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

train 29,130 miles long, and if this train traveled at the rate of 30
miles per hour, it would take over 40 days to pass one point.

This illustrates the enormous amount of earth carried by the
Mississippi each year and deposited in the Gulf of Mexico. Did
not nature intend that the Mississippi River should drain the terri-
tory embracing thirty-two states, two territories and a portion of
the British possessions, on the principle that the section which was
injured or jeopardized, and which required work of protection,
would be recompensed at the expense of the territory that sus-
tained benefits with no corresponding injury? And did nature in-
tend the millions of tons of fertile earth carried by the Mississippi
to be wasted in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico?

I believe it was intended by nature that the Mississippi River
should be the source of very great benefit to mankind, but stipulated
that if mankind would receive the full benefit of this river he must
use intelligence and exertion, as is shown by similar works of
nature. And I further believe that mankind is endowed with all
the necessary intelligence to positively avoid danger of inundation
of the alluvial lands of the Lower Mississippi, and realize all the
benefits of the rich material carried in suspension, by filling in the
low places and enriching the whole territory as desired, as also im-
proving the sanitary condition of this section, and the consumma-
tion of these most desirable conditions depends entirely on the
energy of mankind. Have we energy to help ourselves?

DISCUSSION.

Mr. H. B. Richardson. — This paper announces conclusions
as to the height of future floods in the Lower Mississippi River,
and the consequent dangers impending, which, if correct, must be
regarded as appalling, and may well cause us to join with the
author in asking, "Have we the energy to help ourselves?"

When it appears that a "consideration of the facts . . .
would determine as conservative a rate of increase in the future
of one foot in five years," so that the levees required to restrain
the flood "in 1950 will be ten feet higher than at present," — and
presumably twenty feet higher in the year 2000. With an equal
increase each succeeding century, we may think the wisest ap-
plication of our energies to be toward the removal of ourselves
and our belongings to regions of greater altitude.

It is some comfort, however, to find the author remarking
that "any conclusions reached will be understood as being sus-
ceptible of such modification as more full and correct data may
conclusively determine to be correct and proper."

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 361

And it may afford further relief to examine more carefully
the table constructed by the author "to amplify and form a base
for the conclusions" presented.

This table, in which we are informed "the history of the
great floods is recorded," contains six columns of figures, re-
ferring to the gage height, slope, velocity and discharge at Car-
rollton, of thirteen floods during the period of seventy-one years
between 1828 and 1899. The two last columns ("Velocity" and
"Discharge") contain twenty-five items, thirteen — that is, 56 per
cent. — of which "are interpolated from the records of other
years," according to a system of the author's own devising, —
namely, by finding, in the reports of the Mississippi River Com-
mission, a gaging of discharge and velocity made at Carrollton
at any time when the stage was the same as the highest of the
year given in the first column of the table, and filling in the
last two columns with the discharge and velocity so found. For
instance, as shown in the second table, the author takes from
the records of March 25, 185 1, — when the gage reading at Car-
rollton was 15.2, — the velocity and discharge as then gaged,
and "interpolates" them for the year 1828, when he says the
flood stage, on April 1, was the same. Why the gaging of March
25, 1851, should have been selected for "interpolation" in pref-
erence to that of March 22, when the stage was the same, but the
velocity and discharge considerably greater, is not apparent.
Xor why the "interpolations" for April 25, 1898, should have
been taken from the records of June, 1892, instead of March;
1891, when the stage was the same and the observed velocity
and discharge decidedly larger. The "slope per mile" given in
the fourth column is also "interpolated" from assumed data;
so that, after all, the only column of the table that purports to
give any real "history of the great floods" is the second, — i.e.,
"gage reading," — the third column being simply a variant of the
second, produced by the subtraction of a constant difference
(0.35) between zero of the gage and mean Gulf level.

From the table so constructed the author proceeds to show
the "rate of increase of future maximum flood elevations." For
forty-six years of the period included in his table he finds it only
a foot in ninety years, while in the next twenty-three years it
goes up to the alarming rate of a foot in six and one half years,
the last seven years of which period has rushed on at the fearful
rate of a foot in about two and one-half years.

He fails, however, to note that during the last two years
included in the table there has actually been a decrease at the
rate of almost a foot in seven and a half months.

362 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES. ■

Nor does he mention the fact, shown by the table, that the
increase from the beginning to the end of the period covered,
is only a foot in eighty-eight and three-fourths years, or about
the same as that given for the first forty-six years.

And yet the author, after a "careful consideration of the
facts presented" in the table, concludes it to be a thing that "may
be expected" that an increase of future flood elevations at Car-
rollton will continue indefinitely at the rate of one foot in each
five years.

This can be compared only to the conclusions of another
experienced observer — Mr. S. L. Clemens — in which he shows,
from the rate at which the river is being shortened by cut-offs,
that the corporate limits of New Orleans and Cairo must over-
lap each other at some future date, not now recalled by this
writer, but probably about the same time that the levees here
are built ten feet higher than at present.

The author's local experience and observation has covered
a period of twenty-one years, and his conclusions are entitled to
serious consideration.

But it should be remembered that the investigations of
Humphreys and Abbot, reported in their "Physics and Hydraulics
of the Mississippi River," covered a period of ten years between
1850 and 1861; and that the Mississippi River Commission has
been diligently studying the same problem for over twenty years
— or since 1879; both with ample means for surveys and numer-
ous assistants, and that the scope of their operations has included
not only all that was to be learned from the surveys and ob-
servations at Carrollton and New Orleans, but also throughout
the entire river.

The Humphreys and Abbot report gave certain elevations at
numerous points along the river, which they considered as
probably the highest likely to be reached by any flood confined
between levees, not greater in volume than those previously
recorded. After the flood of 1874, the Commission appointed by
the President to report on the flood of that year, practically
adopted the same conclusions regarding the probable flood-eleva-
tions. And, finally, the Mississippi River Commission, after
some seventeen years of surveys, investigations and studies,
adopted a provisional standard of probable flood heights, not
greatly differing from the conclusions of its predecessor, though
somewhat higher at Carrollton.

No flood has yet come within more than a foot of reaching
the latter standard at Carrollton, and only one has reached the
mark set by Humphreys and Abbot forty years ago.

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 363

Considering the relative opportunities enjoyed by the
several investigators for collecting full data and for comprehen-
sive discussion of the whole subject, the present writer is in-
clined to accept the more moderate conclusions of Humphreys and
Abbot and the Mississippi River Commission, rather than the
startling predictions of the author.

Mr. B. M. Harrod. — In the paper under discussion the title,
"Lower Mississippi," is limited to that part of the river below the
mouth of the Red River. It has usually been understood as ex-
tending over all parts flowing through the alluvial valley, or wher-
ever its geology and physics are the same.

The phenomena of any one part are explainable only by a
comparative study of all parts where similar conditions prevail.

Gage heights are transmitted with substantial regularity from
one station to another over any length of the river which is not
affected by tributaries or outlets. If either of these disturbing
influences intervene between two gages the relation of one to the
other is disturbed, and no flood estimate can be based on the lower
one without estimating the effect of the intervening disturbance.

Probably the law of the uniform relation of successive gages
would, for obvious reasons, be more closely applicable to that part
of the Mississippi below Red River than to any other whenever the
discharge passing that station reaches the sea, or at least the Fort
Jackson gage, without loss. But this has not been the case in any
year of large or even of moderate floods until recently. The loss
of discharge by crevasses between Red River and Carrollton has
always disturbed their high-water gage relation. On several occa-
sions the escape through crevasses amounted to one-third or more
of the discharge passing the former station. Under such condi-
tions no conclusion concerning the increase or decrease of floods
can be reached by an examination of recorded gage heights at Car-
rollton without a study of the effect of the crevasses.

The fallacy of any such method of reasoning is shown by an
examination of the relative heights of the gages at Red River and
at Carrollton during the time that these stations have been care-
fully maintained and regularly recorded, or since the high water of
1871, a period of thirty years.

The discharge at Red River gage station is the sum of the dis-
charges of the main trunk of the Mississippi, of the Red River and
of the overflow, if any, through the Tensas Basin, less the discharge
of the Atchafalaya. A certain gage reading at Red River will
give, approximately, a certain gage reading at Carrollton, provided
there are no crevasses between. The discharge of the Lafourche

I8S2-I89I.

1S92-1901

4377

4i.oo

14-57

14-95

364 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

is so small, even at flood stage, that it may be neglected in so crude
a discussion as this.

In any examination of gage heights, to determine the tendency
of floods to increase or diminish, the writer prefers the method of
dividing the total period of available records into groups and com-
paring the averages, rather than picking out arbitrarily the maxi-
mum heights in two flood years and assuming that the difference
between them indicates the rate of change, without a consideration
of modifying condition.

The following are the averages of the three groups of flood
heights of ten years each, at Red River and at Carrollton, from
1872 to the present time:

Station. 1872-1881.

Red River 41-43

Carrollton 12.50

It will be observed that the second decade shows an increase
over the first at Red River of 2.34 feet, or 5^ per cent. ; and at Car-
rollton of 2.07 feet, or 16^ per cent. The third decade compared
with the second shows at Red River a decrease of 2.77 feet, or 6^
per cent. ; and at Carrollton an increase of 0.37 feet, or 2\ per cent.
The third decade, compared with the first, shows at Red River a
decrease of 0.43 feet, or 1 per cent. ; and at Carrollton' an increase
of 2.4^ feet, or 19-J per cent.

These figures, including all that are sufficiently complete and
reliable for use, indicate no progressive change of importance at
Red River, and a considerable but irregular increase at Carrollton.
The former gage records the discharge of the valley across the
thirty-second parallel, modified only by the distribution of discharge
down the main trunk and through the Tensas Basin, while the
Carrollton gage has been largely controlled by intervening
crevasses.

This exhibit directly connects the increase of high waters at
Carrollton, with the improvement of the levee system which fol-
lowed the organization of the State levee boards and the first exten-
sion of Government aid early in the second decade, from 1882 to
1891, and with the continued and increasing vigor with which the
work has been pushed, both by the States and general Government,
since 1892.

In this connection, it may be interesting to give the record at
Cairo, near the head of the valley, as it has been used at Red River
and Carrollton. During the second decade the average of high
waters was iof per cent, higher than in the first ; in the third it was

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 365

9 per cent, lower than in the second, and substantially the same as
in the first decade.

The evidence of any present change in flood heights other than
that accounted for by building of levees is entirely inconclusive.
The author is of the opinion that the floods of the future will not
increase, but may decrease. The reasons given, connected with
the breaking up of ground for cultivation and the extension of
irrigation, are probably good, as far as they go, for the western
tributaries. But it is hard to believe that the extensive deforesting
of the western slopes of the Alleghenies can fail to increase the
rapidity and thoroughness of the run-off from these mountains,
making the high water higher and the low water lower.

The building of levees commenced from small beginnings
nearly two centuries ago, and since then has been the only method
employed for the reclamation and protection of the alluvial lands
of the valley. Since 1850 the levee system has received thorough
study and full discussion. Humphreys and Abbot reached a con-
clusion in favor of a combined system of levees and outlets, but
failed to find any suitable location for the latter. Abbot demon-
strated the futility of attempting to grade up the lower lands of the
valley by deposit from overflow. Barnard, Bailey, Forshey, Eads
and many others advocated levees. The discussion occupied many
engineers and entered both houses of Congress and their com-
mittees. While it raged the people who wanted to live and plant
in the river States went on strengthening and extending the levees.
It is now the adopted system because it is proved theoretically right
and practically useful. Levees have caused no elevation of the bed
of the river and no phenomena that were not anticipated, and have
developed no insurmountable difficulties. They have at all times
been, and they are now, worth every dollar they have cost. So
well are those who live behind them satisfied of this that there is
no relaxation of effort to complete the system.

Reservoirs may, in certain localities, serve as useful adjuncts
for the regulation of high and low water discharge, for irrigation
or perhaps for sedimentation, but their use will be limited by the
want of suitable physical conditions and their great cost.

General Barnard, who was not only one of the ablest advocates
of the reclamation of the alluvial valley by levees, but also the first
and for a long time the only United States engineer who advised
the improvement of Southpass by jetties, thus expressed himself
in a criticism of General Ellet's plan of outlets :

"The idea that levees have any tendency to cause a rising of
the bed is so simply absurd, so destitute of a single reason to justify

366 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

it, that it hardly seems necessary to allude to it. It is the want of
levees, and that alone, which can cause such a rising, and in pro-
portion as the water is let out from its confinement by levees, by
means of crevasses or 'outlets,' will the bed of the Mississippi River
be elevated.

"There is but one protection to Louisiana, and that is levees ;
outlets or lateral vents of any kind may be discussed, adopted by
State authorities, perhaps attempted. If so, they will certainly
deluge the unfortunate district through which their discharge is
carried, while they utterly fail to relieve the river ; producing, on
the otner hand, deposits in its bed, which they will eventually raise,
and with it the surface.

"In brief, to take waters from the river channel and to throw
them into the lateral basins, lakes and bayous is to take them from
the channel by which they can, with the most ease and safety, be
carried to the sea to put them into basins unsuited by their slope
to carry off the floods thrown upon them."

Mr. William Joseph Hardee. — Before entering into a dis-
cussion of the paper before us, the writer desires to apologize to the
members of this Society for imposing on their time, and to beg
their indulgence if what he has to say upon the subject is as ex-
tended or more extended than the original paper. The subject is
a most vital one to the inhabitants of the alluvial valley traversed
by the Mississippi River, and should not be lightly dealt with. To
reach intelligent conclusions in the matter of flood heights neces-
sarily involves the investigation of a very large field.

The harsh impeachment has been breathed that those engaged
in the works of river improvement are perforce, for self-protection,
banded together in supporting with great unanimity the methods
being employed through apprehension that they might, like Othello,
find themselves with their occupation gone. Such charge cannot
be made in the case of the writer, as he is not now and may never
again be identified with Mississippi River improvements. He
feels, however, that his long connection with those works and his
experience of many years spent in working on the river entitle his
opinion to some weight without question as to his motives.

There is so much fallacious reasoning in the paper before us,
appealing strongly as it does not only to the layman, but to the
inexperienced engineer as well, that the writer feels it a duty he
owes to the community in which he lives to exercise his best effort
to defeat the circulation and acceptance of such unsound doctrines.

There are to-day but few, if any, subjects more perplexing to
American engineers than the one of economically controlling the
Mississippi River with respect to maintaining adequate depths for
low-water navigation ; providing against the destruction, by caving

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 367

banks, of valuable improvements situated in close proximity to
its shores, and protecting against overflow the lowlands in the val-
ley through which it flows.

The subject is, unfortunately, one in which not a large number
of engineers are directly interested, and it has therefore challenged
the attention of not many and the close and devoted study of but
few.

Xo reliable conclusions concerning that part of the subject
relating to increasing flood heights can be deduced from a study
of the river at any one particular point, or of a very short length
of it. The investigation should properly cover the entire length
of the river from Cairo to the Gulf, for the purpose of disposing
of matters of general bearing and influence ; and then there should
be considered a stretch of river, ranging from 100 to 200 miles in
length, throughout which the levee line is continuous on both banks
and no tributary streams occur to exert an extraneous influence.
Consideration of a long length of river is essential to eliminate
local vagaries and afford net results.

He who undertakes to study the Mississippi River intelligently
soon finds himself in such a maze of ramifying data, many of which
are apparently inconsistent or seemingly contradictory, that unless
he be patient and persistent he will soon abandon his investigation.

After a careful consideration of the paper before us, the writer
is forced to the conviction that its author undertook to discuss his
subject with a preconceived theory, and in an endeavor to establish
the correctness of that theory he has either failed to make proper
research to inform himself fully or else he has ingeniously avoided
reference to and consideration of such data as are properly germane
to the subject, reviewing and employing only such data as he
believed would support his theory. As far as employing data is
concerned, he fails to go beyond the Carrollton gage, using only
some controvertible data acquired at that gage upon which to base
his theory. Where he does venture beyond the Carrollton gage
his conclusions are mere opinions, unsupported by even apparently
trustworthy data. The writer has already stated that reliable con-
clusions cannot be arrived at by a consideration of the river at one
point only, as he will later on endeavor to demonstrate. He is so
impressed with that belief that, on such account alone; he would
disregard the conclusions reached by the author, no matter how
well such conclusions appear to be supported by apparent facts.
The author, fortified with specially selected data, endeavors by
fallacious argument to prove that his "theory" is a "condition,"
predicating his conclusions principally on a comparison of dis-

368 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

charge observations measured at the Carrollton, La., station,
propped up by some alleged but unproven facts, and some admitted
facts so unimportant in effect as not to possess appreciable bearing
on the subject. And, having satisfied himself and ostensibly his
readers, that dire calamity threatens the Mississippi River Valley
in the near future, he exhorts us to employ our best endeavors to
discover some avenue which promises relief in a measurable degree,
describing a general plan by which he believes adequate relief may
be secured.

As the writer cannot admit that a calamity threatens, he will
not indulge in a discussion of relief measures, but will confine his
attention to a disproval of the conclusions reached by the author.

It may not be out of place, at this time, to remark that the ques-
tion of utilizing the sediment carried by the waters of the Mis-
sissippi River for the upbuilding of the lowlands in the alluvial
valley is one which is not altogether without merit, but the writer
feels that it is a matter which time and circumstance will develop.
The cost of the work incident to such an accomplishment would
at this time so far exceed the value of the lands reclaimed as un-
doubtedly to render the project impracticable. The population of
Holland averages 401 persons to the square mile, and such density
of population enhances the value of land to a degree which justifies
the large amount of money invested in dikes, extensive drainage
canals and gigantic pumping stations to reclaim the land and pro-
tect it against inundation.

In Louisiana, the fifteen riparian parishes in the alluvial valley,
the parish of Orleans included, average 71 persons to the square
mile. In some of the parishes containing the largest areas of very
low lands, the population per square mile is as small as 7 to 19
persons. Considering the present small value of lowlands in the
alluvial belt, and the large tracts of cheap land available there for
cultivation, it may be readily appreciated that our country has not
yet reached a stage in its existence at which the expenditure of
large sums of money is justified in reclaiming low, ill-drained lands.
When such time arrives, some method, perhaps along the lines sug-
gested by the author, will be employed to render lowlands available
for agricultural pursuits.

From the writer's knowledge of how discharge measurements
are conducted, gained from personal observation, he is confident
that not even approximate reliance can be placed on the results
obtained. Discharge measurements should be disregarded for pur-
poses other than general approximations. They should never be
employed to govern conclusions based on differences shown by a

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 369

comparison of results obtained at different periods for the same
station or close analogy of results obtained at different stations.
There are so many opportunities for accidental error which cannot
be easily detected, that error of result is likely to range as high as
25 per cent. This opinion is shared by many of the officers of the
United States Engineer Corps, under whose direction discharges of
the Mississippi River are measured, as the writer knows from their
personal expressions to him.

To illustrate the unreliability of the discharge records quoted
by the author, and incidentally for the information of those mem-
bers of the Society who may not be familiar with the detail work
embraced in measuring those discharges, the high-water depths of
the river being as great as 180 feet, the following description of the
crude method commonly employed in the past is furnished :

Depths of water were measured with a cotton rope line
weighted with a 7 to 20-pound weight of lead, depending on depth
of water and velocity of current ; velocities were measured with a
Price self-registering current meter. In the early days, before a
current meter was invented, velocities were determined by means of
surface floats floating over a fixed base line. Both the soundings
and velocities were measured from a steam launch of small size,
which could be rapidly maneuvered.

Tne point at which the discharge is measured is usually desig-
nated as a "discharge station." At the station, a cross-section of
the river is established on a line projected as nearly as practicable
at right angles to the general axis of the current. The contour of
the submerged portion of the cross-section is developed by a num-
ber of soundings taken from a steam launch moving backward and
forward across the river a number of times. Sub-stations on the
cross-section are then established at points marking the angles in
the wetted perimeter. To minimize error, in the instance of long
planes in the wetted perimeter, the sub-stations are established not
further apart than 200 feet.

The depth of the river and the velocity are measured at each
sub-station. The depths and mean velocity at adjacent sub-stations
are averaged, and then multiplied by the distance between the sub-
stations, thus determining the discharge, for any desired unit of
time, for that particular division of the cross-section ; the several
sub-divisions are afterward summed up, and the total discharge
for the station thus determined.

On the line of cross-section, on both banks of the river, there
are placed, several hundred feet apart, two prominent targets, fur-
nishing a range to guide the boat in taking position on the cross-

370 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

section. Sub-targets are located along the bank of the river on
the upper side of the discharge station, two of which form a range,
and so placed, as to position, that a projected line through them
intersects the cross-section line at a sub-station. The targets, of
course, are marked differently, so as to be readily distinguished by
the observer on the boat.

The boat is moved to a point slightly above the sub-station to
be measured ; and, when it starts floating with the current, the lead
is heaved and the boat either worked ahead or backed, as may be
necessary to keep the lead line in vertical position and alongside of
the boat. As it is difficult, after the lead has once touched the
bottom, to maintain it plumb for any length of time because of deep
water and strong current, it is important that it shall be cast just
far enough above the line of cross-section to assure its reaching
plumb just as the sub-station is reached.

It will be observed that there are two rather difficult points
involved in determining correct depths. To begin with, the boat
must be skillfully handled, and great care must be taken that it
crosses the sub-station at its proper location, which circumstance
can be determined only by the boatman through the intersection of
the sub-range line and the main cross-section line. This is not easy
to accomplish when it is remembered how easily a small light craft
may be influenced by wind and current. The boatman must also
take into account the depth of water and the velocity, to guide him
in determining just how far above the station to go, and what posi-
tion to take with respect thereto, to get his boat in shape for casting
the lead, in order that the boat may cross the sub-station just about
the time the lead line becomes plumb.

Each day, before sounding is commenced, the lead line is
soaked for half an hour or so in water, then taken out, stretched and
verified. It is always long or short, and the difference must be
determined for different depths and applied as a correction to the
depths measured.

On many occasions the writer has personally directed sound-
ings of the Mississippi River, and on some occasions has himself
handled the lead line. From his observations and personal experi-
ence he is certain that in depths ranging from ioo to 160 feet of
water, flowing at a velocity of from 5 to 7 feet per second, it is
impossible to secure a plumb lead line. There is always a con-
siderable amount of swag throughout the center of the line; just
how much cannot be determined, but certainly of sufficient amount
to affect the correctness of the sounding.

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 371

Before commencing a series of discharge observations, the cur-
rent meter is rated. This is accomplished in slack water by drag-
ging the meter with a boat a number of times over a fixed base.
The mean of a number of observations is taken as the fixed relation
between a revolution of the meter wheel and a lineal foot. As it
would be impossible, with the use of one boat and one meter during
the day (the time in which a discharge must be measured) to
measure the velocity at a number of depths on each sub-station,
which should properly be done in order to secure close results, the
inventor, Mr. W. G. Price, then United States assistant engineer,
personally directing the discharge observations at the Carrollton
station, after much study and innumerable observations, fixed, for
depths of less than 20 feet, 0.4 of the depth below the surface as a
point at which the mean velocity occurs, and, for depths in excess of
20 feet, 0.6 of the depth below the surface as the point at which
the mean velocity occurs.

To one having knowledge of the Mississippi River, who will
pause to consider the general turbulence of the flow of its waters,
the number of cross-currents, boils, eddies, etc., it does not seem
reasonable that the mean velocity should really occur at the depths
above described. In the opinion of the writer, this arbitrary use of
a fixed percentage of depth, without allowance for local conditions,
at which to measure mean velocities, contains considerable element
of error.

In measuring a discharge, the first thing done, after checking
the lead line, is to make one sounding at each of the sub-stations.
If the sounding corresponds closely with the depth found on the
preceding day, the boat passes on to the next sub-station ; but if any
considerable difference be found, a number of additional casts of the
lead line are made, in order to- verify the sounding and make cer-
tain that some change of depth has taken place since the preceding
day.

The writer is informed by assistant engineers, who have meas-
ured discharges at the Carrollton station, that differences as high as
4 feet have been noted from day to day at a sub-station. Since
depths are measured at the sub-stations only, no determination is
made of changes, if any, between sub-stations. It will be observed
that in this respect there is opportunity for considerable error in the
area of that sub-division of the cross-section.

When the depths throughout the discharge section have been
determined, the boat takes position in turn at each sub-station.
The machinery is worked ahead, just sufficiently strong to over-
come the current and maintain the boat in a fixed position ; the

372 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

meter is then lowered to proper depth, and usually is operated for
three minutes. The total number of revolutions is registered on a
gage on the deck of the boat, the observer closely watching the gage
to see that the meter is running evenly. By reducing the total
number of revolutions to the equivalent per second and applying
the meter rating, the velocity of that sub-station is determined.
The opportunities for accidental error in this part of the work of
measuring the discharge are not small The observer must trust
to his boatman to keep the boat steady and in proper position, and,
as has been stated, it is doubtful that the depth used is the point at
which the mean velocity really occurs. Further, the meter is rated
but once during a season ; its mechanism is delicate, and likely, at
any time, to become deranged, affecting all reductions based upon
the original rating. It must also be stated that the position of sub-
stations is not altered from time to time to meet occurring changes
in the bottom of the river.

It would seem almost certain that, with such great opportuni-
ties for error, considerable error does occur. The writer is aware
that in the past some of the observers have been almost criminally
careless in the performance of their duties. He knows of one
observer, whose work forms part of the records of the Mississippi
River Commission, who, through an entire series of discharge
measurements never had a lead line cast after the contour of the
cross-section was first developed ; he contented himself with merely
applying the change of gage height to the original depths. A can-
vass of the records and the inconsistencies found, alone proved that
the discharge measurements are not reliable within close limits.

In 1880, June 12 and June 16, Carrollton gage registered 7.6
feet; in the former instance the discharge was 581,000 cubic feet
per second, whereas it was only 553,000 cubic feet per second in
the latter instance.

Again in 185 1, July 2 and July 19, Carrollton gage registered
12.2 feet; in the former instance the discharge was 805,000 cubic
feet per second, whereas it was 856,000 cubic feet per second in
the latter instance.

Again in 1883, April 28 and May 1, Carrollton gage registered
14.2 feet; in the former instance the discharge was 972,000 cubic
feet per second, whereas it was only 941,000 cubic feet per second
in the latter instance.

Again in 1890, March 6 and 7, Carrollton gage registered 15.2
feet; in the former instance the discharge was 1,175,000 cubic feet
per second, whereas it was only 1,128,000 cubic feet per second in
the latter instance.

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 373

The difference in the discharges for the same gage reading
may be due to error of measurement or they may be due to natural
changes in the cross-sectional area caused by a rising or a falling
river. It does not matter to which cause the difference is charge-
able, the fact remains that a discharge determined at a gage read-
ing on a particular day cannot be relied upon as being the same for
a similar gage reading at some distant date, a fluctuation of gage
height having occurred in the interim.

It will be noted that the author of the paper under discussion
rests his case almost entirely on conclusions reached through a
comparison of discharge measurements. The writer believes that
m doing so he has committed a grave error, because not only are the
records in that respect faulty, but if they were absolutely correct
his case would still remain unproven, since a change in the carrying
capacity of the river cannot be established by observations taken at
one point only. The discharge is controlled not by the gage height
only, but also by the slope existing at the time and place of measure-
ment.

It is a law of hydraulics that, if, during a given period and
over a given length of river, there has been no net loss of cross-
section, and if the elevation of water at the upper end should be
increased while at the lower end it remains constant, there will
follow increased slope, producing increased velocity, and conse-
quently increased discharge.

The writer, therefore, believes that the author, in seeking to
determine whether less discharge occurs at the same or greater
gage heights, should have altogether disregarded a comparison of
discharges measured at one point only, and should have given his
attention to a determination of the changes that have taken place
in the carrying capacity of the river.

One of the peculiarities of the Mississippi River is the rapidity
with which the area of a given cross-section will vary under the
influence of changes in the axis and velocity of the current caused
by a rise or fall in the river and a variation in the amount of sedi-
ment it is carrying. The records abound with corroboration of
that statement.

On a given cross-section the bottom will, to-day, scour in places
and shoal in others. Within the short interval of a few days that
result will be found to have been reversed, the abrasions having
disappeared and accretions beyond the original elevation having
occurred, and vice versa. At times a net increase and at other
times a net decrease of cross-sectional area will be noted.

374 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

An increase or decrease of cross-sectional area at one point
may be compensated by a corresponding change in the cross-sec-
tional area at a point a short distance below.

It may also occur that there will be either a net increase or a
net decrease of cross-sectional area throughout a short length of
river, so that, to determine what change in the carrying capacity of
the river, if any, has taken place, a long length of river must be
considered, and its experiences gathered at about the same gage
heights noted, to eliminate local vagaries; in such an instance the
net result may be accepted as conclusive evidence whether or not
the carrying capacity of the river has remained the same, or whether
it has increased or decreased.

The author of the paper under discussion alleges that the car-
rying capacity of the river is steadily decreasing, which, in his
opinion, forces any given volume of water to attain a higher eleva-
tion in passing a given point. A similar allegation has many times
been made by many persons.

The Mississippi River Commission, in search of light and
truth on the subject, and for its information and guidance, had an
investigation made by its principal assistant engineer, Mr. J. A.
Ockerson, of the 202.7 miles of river extending from Riverton to
Vicksburg. Within that distance 554 cross-sections, which were
measured during low water in 1881-1882, were measured during
low water in 1894 for purposes of comparison. Mr. Ockerson's
report, entitled "Comparisons of Cross-section Elements of the
Mississippi River," was published by the Mississippi River Com-
mission, from whom a copy may be obtained, and members will
find it very interesting. Referring therein to his investigation,
Mr. Ockerson says :

"In order to separate the results for pools and crossings, the
river has been divided into a series of sections in such a way that
the results for the pool sections and bar sections have been summed
separately. This is done to detect, if possible, any difference in
movement of bed under the two conditions of pool and bar."

After a most careful analysis and review of the subject in a
report covering twenty-nine pages of closely printed matter, Mr.
Ockerson expresses the following conclusions :

1. The channel capacity in 1894 was greater than in 1881-1882,
due to changes above the low-water line.

2. The crests of the shoal bars in 1894 were, on the whole,
lower than in 1881-1882. This refers to the actual elevation of the
bottom and not to the top of water on the bars.

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 375

3. The maximum depth of pools was generally less in 1894
than in 1881-1882.

4. The thalweg depths were, on the whole, less in 1894 than
in 1881-1882. That is, a little more than one-half of the length of
the river under consideration, and also the average of the sections,
shows an elevation of the thalweg or raising of the bottom. A
large percentage of this raising occurs in the pools.

5. The high-water bars lying between the medium and bank-
full stages have been cut down an average of something over one
foot.

6. The general tendency seems to be toward a channel more
uniform in depth and of greater capacity.

The author of the paper under discussion charges diminution
in the carrying capacity of the river to the three following principal
causes :

1. Construction of levees on lines not calculated to maintain a
constant cross-section of that part of the river above the natural
bank.

2. Moving back of levees around caving bends, thereby mate-
rially increasing the distance to ocean level.

3. Diminution of channel by accretions on the sides and bottom
of the river on the apex side of bends without corresponding
abrasion on the opposite side.

Referring to reasons 1 and 2, it may be stated that, by actual
measurement at the office of the United States engineers in this city,
from Baton Rouge to Carrollton, the average distance the levee line
is removed from the natural bank on the west side of the river is
358.68 feet and 340.26 feet on the east side, making an aggregate
of 698.94 feet of batture, or foreshore, between the natural bank and
the levee line.

It is a well-known fact that the flow of the river over the bat-
tures or foreshores is largely obstructed by eddies, spur levees,
vegetation, and other obstacles. If, however, we apply, to this
width of say 700 feet, an extreme depth of 5 feet and an extreme
velocity of 4 feet per second, we shall have the small amount of
14,000 cubic feet of water flowing above and beyond the natural
banks. The amount is an inconsiderable part of a discharge so
large as a million or more cubic feet per second. In fact, the flow
over the battures is rarely measured and included in the discharge
recorded for a station.

It will scarcely be denied that, in the three respects cited by the
author of the paper before us, the length of river, from Riverton to
Vicksburg, possesses more favorable elements for proving the cor-

376 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

rectness of the author's arguments than does the river from Baton
Rouge to Carrollton, a length of 125 miles, which is as great a
length above Carrollton as can be reasonably counted on as exert-
ing an influence on the gage at that place.

Between Riverton and Vicksburg the river is made up of a
succession of deep bends, with little or no length of straight river
between the bends ; the levees are anywhere from a few hundred
feet to five miles or more from the natural bank, since, when rebuilt
to meet the demands made by destructive caving banks, they are
retired to a distant location. That length of the river is very
variable. The bars build up rapidly, and middle ground bars form,
splitting the channel and tending to obstruct the flow of the river.

On the other hand, the river between Carrollton and Baton
Rouge is fairly straight ; there are but few sharp bends and many
long lengths of straight river. The levees are quite uniformly
removed from the natural bank, there being but one point, Bonnet
Carre, at which local conditions force an unusual retirement for a
length of about a mile, and the retirement there does not exceed
2600 feet. Levees which must be retired because of caving banks
are rebuilt on locations but a few hundred feet distant. The length
of the river is almost constant. The bars do not build up rapidly,
and serious middle ground bars obstructing the flow of the river
are rare and never extensive. If, in a length of river where all
things combine to favor the author's theory, that theory fails, does
it not stand to reason that it must fail when the circumstances are
less favorable ?

The writer at least believes so, and he is further convinced of
the soundness of his opinion, that the carrying capacity of that part
of the river which might exert an influence on the Carrollton gage
has not diminished, by a consideration of the conclusions reached,
after careful investigation and analysis, by Major Geo. McC. Derby,
Corps of Engineers United States Army, in charge of the work of
improving the Mississippi River.

The writer had the pleasure of assisting in that investigation,
which eventuated in a report dated March 16, 1900, addressed to
the Mississippi River Commission, from which the following
excerpts are taken :

'Tn general it may be said that any study of the relations of
gage heights, while exceedingly interesting, is apt to be on the
whole rather unsatisfactory ; the number of variables in the problem
is so very great that the mind is baffled in its efforts to keep track
of them, and at the end remains unsatisfied as to the soundness of
the conclusions reached. It fortunately so happens, however, that
there is one long stretch of the Mississippi River, where, through

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. Z77

natural causes many of the variables of this perplexing problem
have been eliminated ; this tempting field for investigation is of
course the stretch of 200 miles lying between the mouth of Red
River and New Orleans. At the next gage below New Orleans
the flood heights are so low and the mouth of the river is so near,
that the tides of the Gulf, small as they are, are sufficient to intro-
duce perplexing complications ; while above Red River, outlets and
tributaries combine with all the other uncertainties to make the
problem as difficult as it well can be. Between Red River and New
Orleans there are practically no tributaries, and but one small out-
let ; the length ot the river is about constant ; the levee system
is less variable than elsewhere ; and the effect of the tide at the Car-
rollton gage is so slight that the height of the river may be assumed
to be controlled entirely by the stream of water coming from above,
unaffected by variations of level having their origin below.

"During the flood of 1897, which broke the high- water record
at every gage in the Fourth District, I was a good deal surprised
and impressed by the fact that the first gage to exceed its previous
record was the lowest one, — namely, the gage at Fort Jackson, the
next was the Carrollton gage, and so on up the river to Red River
Landing, where the gage did not exceed its previous record until
sixteen days after the Carrollton gage had done so.

"What was scarcely less' surprising was the fact that when the
Carrollton gage reached its former maximum (17.45) the gage at
Red River Landing still lacked 1.6 feet of the height which in 1893
had produced that maximum.

"Both of these remarkable facts point at first sight to the much-
looked-for raising of the bed of the lower river, with the consequent
increase of flood height, which so many have claimed to be the
ultimate effect of levee building.

"Before attempting to seek the cause of these phenomena it
will be well to ascertain first whether they represent merely curious
anomalies peculiar to the flood of 1897, or whether they indicate
any well-established tendency to a change in the regimen of the
river."

Tables are submitted showing the ratio between the Red River
Landing and Carrollton gages for all the flood waves that passed
the former place at stages of about 45.2, 43.6 and 39.3 respectively.

Continuing, Major Derby says :

"More evidence to the same effect could be adduced, but the
above seems to be sufficient to establish clearly the proposition that
the striking feature of the flood of 1897 under discussion, was not
something abnormal, but that, on the contrary, such a change in
the regimen of the river has actually taken place that we must now
expect that any flood wave passing Red River Landing at a high
stage will cause a flood wave at Carrollton a foot or more higher
than a flood of the same height at Red River Landing would have
caused fifteen or twenty years ago.

"Now, if this is actually a fact, it must be due to one or more
of the three following causes :

378 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

"i. A raising of the bed of the river below Carrollton, causing
a decrease in the carrying capacity of that portion of the river.

"2. The effect of crevasses and their closure.

"3. An increase of the carrying capacity of the river between
Carrollton and Red River Landing.

"I will consider each of these possible causes in turn.

"1. Has the bed of the river risen?

"If the apparent increase in the flood height at Carrollton is
due to the filling up of the bed of the river below, it is manifest that
such an effect would be proportionately more noticeable in the case
of a low flood wave than it would be in great floods.

"I accordingly submit tables showing the gage readings for
many small flood waves which passed both gages well within the
banks of the river, a type of waves which usually receives but little
attention, but which is in some respect more instructive than the
greater waves.

"An examination of these tables not only shows that the
apparent increase of flood height at Carrollton is not more notice-
able at low stages than at high ones, but it reveals, on the contrary,
no trace whatever of any such apparent increase.

"I conclude that whatever else the apparent increase of flood
height at high stages may be due to, it is certainly not caused by a
rise of the bed of the river below Carrollton."

Major Derby also shows that the results observed are not due
to crevasses, and, continuing, says :

"If we are right in the conclusion that the apparent increase in
the relative height of the Carrollton gage is not due to the filling up
of the bed of the river below, nor to the effects of crevasses above or
below, there must have been an increase in the carrying capacity of
the river above Carrollton, the following tables, with the others
already given, show that this increase in carrying capacity must
have taken place at such a height in the bed of the river as to mani-
fest itself only at stages above 27.0 on the Red River Landing gage
(highest gage record 50.2).

"In the annual report of the Mississippi River Commission for
1899 the surveys made between Red River Landing and Donald-
sonville are discussed with results which are corroborative of the
above discussion of the gage readings, the conclusion having been
reached that the comparison of the results of all the surveys seems
to show conclusively that there had been a general tendency to the
permanent enlargement of the stream above the low water line, and
the capacity of the river to discharge its flood waters has been more
than maintained.

"The practical effect of this increase of the carrying capacity
of the river between Carrollton and Red River Landing is to
diminish the high-water slope, so that a flood wave producing a
given height at the Carrollton gage would pass Red River Land-
ing to-day at a level several feet lower than would have been the
case fifteen or twenty years ago. In other words, since the
crevasses have been closed and tha levee line maintained with few

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 379

or no breaks, there has been a notable decrease of flood height at
Red River Landing, amounting apparently to 3 feet or more."

Observe that Major Derby conclusively demonstrates that the
carrying capacity of the river has decreased neither above nor below
Carrollton ; that, on the contrary, there has been a well-defined
tendency toward enlargement.

The writer had plattings made of the only five cross-sections
of the river, at the Carrollton discharge station for which reliable
records are accessible, and the areas below the zero of the gage
computed, with the following result :

Year.

Gage height.

Area below zero of gage

1883

15.4

137.178 square feet.

1891

14.8

144-153 "

1893

17.2

151. 881

1895

2.0

143.750 "

1896

6.1

143.785 " "

This table certainly shows no evidence of a progressive de-
crease in the cross-sectional area, but rather the reverse, as we have,
in 1895 and 1896, at a low stage, a greater area than we had in 1883
at a high stage. But, as has been stated, earlier in this paper, the
elevation of the bed of the river at any given cross-section varies
from day to day, as the river rises or falls ; and, whether or not the
carrying capacity is increasing or decreasing, can be ascertained
only by determining the net change in a long length of river.

One of the most remarkable of the statements in the paper
under discussion is that the development and improvement of the
watersheds of the Mississippi River and its tributary streams will
decrease the maximum volume of future floods. The writer has
always believed — in fact, has never before known the proposition
to be challenged — that the deforestation in the great watersheds
and the improved drainage of lands there, must necessarily cause
retention of less of the rainfall by the soil, but will affect its more
rapid delivery to the main drainage arteries, resulting in not only
greater volume in the Mississippi, but temporary increased height,
because of the rapid assemblage of waters in that stream.

The author of the paper under discussion finds great comfort
for himself, and support for his theory that the levees must be raised
not less than 10 feet higher than at present by the year 1950 in what
he designates as the bold assertion of Mr. Chas. Ellet, made in 1851,
to the effect that the levees would have to be raised 2 feet higher
than they then were to restrain successfully such a flood as occurred
in that year. There is no evidence to show that Mr. Ellet reached
that conclusion through the reasons assigned by the author. It is

380 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

more likely that he had a more intimate knowledge of the Mis-
sissippi River than did his associates, and that he was wise enough
to realize that 2 feet additional height of levees was a fair estimate
of the requirements to retain between the levees such a flood as that
of 1 85 1 and to care for such volume of water until such time as the
energy of that flood, augmented by the energy of others to follow,
would increase the carrying capacity of the river.

Had Ellet known that the immense low-lying basins in the
alluvial belt would be rapidly leveed at some comparatively early
date, he would doubtless have expressed the opinion that the levees
would have to be raised five or more feet instead of two to success-
fully carry between them to the sea such floods as that of 1851.

The author of the paper before us says that the Government
engineers, in recommending the "all-levee system," did not take
into consideration the serious effect of increasing the elevation of
floods, etc. In this he is mistaken. In 1880, when the Mississippi
River Commission first came into existence, it was without any-
thing like complete and reliable data upon which to base its future
operations, nor was it equipped with funds for levee work. From
time to time, as far as its funds would permit, it joined the local
levee organizations in the general work of restoring and maintain-
ing the continuity of the levee line to a grade one foot higher than
the ihighest previously known water. It was fully recognized, at
that time and since then, as the transactions of the commission will
show, that the grade used was forced by economy. It was deemed
advisable, since the levee system would be no more efficient than
its weakest lengths, to restore the entire system to some practicable
grade, rather than to have gaps in the line and some lengths of
such comparatively extraordinary height as not to render maximum
service for years to come. As soon as the continuity of the levee
line was re-established and there were funds with which to improve
the existing system, the commission adopted a provisional grade as
the next practicable step to which to advance the height of the
levee line. About that time the extension of the levee system along
the fronts of previously unleveed immense alluvial basins was
undertaken, and has since been continued. This extension of the
levee system produced a change of flood conditions, which made
it very difficult to answer with precision the question of a grade
competent to care for future floods. The problem would have been
more easily solved if only the retention of flood waters between the
then existing levees had to be dealt with, but the introduction of the
new factor, the leveeing of new basins, made the problem more
perpLexing.

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 381

Future flood heights and ultimate levee grades were the sub-
ject of much discussion by the members of the Mississippi River
Commission and eminent levee engineers, Captain Townsend, of
the Army Engineer Corps, and the late Major Wm. Starling, of
Greenville, Miss., contributing valuable papers, which will be found
in the Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers.

When the levee line had been nearly uniformly raised to the
first provisional grade and the system had been considerably ex-
tended, the greatest flood of record, 1897, occurred. From the
observations derived from that flood, a new grade was adopted,
which it is confidently believed will meet all future requirements,
except probably a most extraordinary coincidence of maximum
rainfall in the valley of the Mississippi River and its tributary
streams.

The author of the paper under discussion appears ignorant of
the facts just related, and overlooks the effect exerted on flood
heights in the lower river by increased flood heights in the upper
river, which were anticipated and produced by causes easily com-
prehended.

One of the good arguments advanced in support of levees
lowering flood heights by increasing the carrying capacity of the
river, is contained in the following paragraph in the paper under
discussion :

"Were the Mississippi River not leveed in or no artificial
works constructed along its banks, it would, when rising above its
normal banks, overflow and deposit its sediment on the adjacent
banks and the surrounding country, and as it gradually elevated its
banks and the surrounding country, and gradually withheld the
waters from overflowing, it would scour a channel of the desired
width and depth to convey the volume to the sea level."

If the river will do, naturally and by slow degrees, what the
author says it will do, why should it not do so just as effectively, yet.
more rapidly, with the assistance of artificially elevated banks?

The writer is firmly convinced that the levee system is a suc-
cess ; that it is performing its mission well, and will continue to do-
so ; that it will in time prove the means of increasing the carrying
capacity of the river ; and, that floods of a given volume will pass to
sea level at lower elevation than formerly.

Mr. Sidney F. Lewis. — In the study and solution of the
problems of the Mississippi River, the engineer has to depend
more upon facts, and the relations they bear to one another,
than upon any fundamental principles to guide his work.

He must analyze and classify all the reliable data on the
subject in order to obtain these relations of fact before he can ven-

382 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

ture to build a theory. We recognize the value of the three prin-
cipal mechanical laws as applied in hydrodynamics, the A, B, C, as it
were, of the subject, which make up the theory of flow, as ex-
pressed in the formula, "Velocity of flow in a stream varies di-
rectly as the square root of the product of its hydraulic radius
(the ratio between the sectional area of the part of the bed it
occupies, and the frictional or resisting surfaces bounding it,
known as the wetted perimeter) by its slope (the ratio between
its fall and length)" as of prime importance to the engineer
who lays a pipe or builds a conduit, for by this formula he can
determine the form and set the slope, and the resulting flow will
be the one thing that he wants to know; but the flow in a
sedimentary stream, like the Mississippi River, makes its own
form, and that a very irregular one, and so distributes its slope
that it may be almost all concentrated at a certain point at one
stage, with little or none there at a different stage. Here there is
not much use in trying to express the velocity by V = CyRS, for
R and S are more difficult to measure than V.

Those of us who are more familiar with the vagaries of
this river, and who are employed daily in its observations and
operations, know that the "guess and allow," the "average judg-
ment" and the "personal equation" figure immensely in the
determination of C, the experimental coefficient.

The author of this paper by his ingenious methods of inter-
polation and interpretation from his point of view of the relation
of certain gage readings, velocity, slope and discharge observa-
tions in some thirteen high water years, all of which he calls
great floods, builds up a theory and arrives at conclusions, which,
to say the least, are appalling, and well worthy of all our
energies to thwart and prevent. We live, however, in that con-
solation which the author metes out to us, when he informs
us that this dire calamity, at a rate of one foot increase of eleva-
tion to the levees every five years, will take place in 1950. The
writer would suggest to the younger members of this Society,
who will have passed the age of three score and ten allotted to
man, that when that momentous day arrives, they gather all the
literature on the Mississippi River, instruments and other
paraphernalia, and go to the then existing mountains' on the
New Orleans front, and offer them in sacrifice to the deity of
the "Father of Waters," and further invoke the Almighty, of
whom it is written that He created this universe in six days,
and that after resting on the seventh, in the contemplation of
His great work, He concluded that all was well with one excep-

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 383

tion, — He had failed to complete the Mississippi River. To man,
made in His own image, He has relegated this task, and if- it
be beyond the brains and ability of man to master it, why let us
pray to Him for a second "Appalachian Revolution," so that
"*He can correct His first mistake, and turn the flow of this great
river up stream toward the North Pole instead of the Equator,
for it is the shortest distance by that route to the center of the
earth.

The writer is inclined to be optimistic in his views. He be-
lieves that the universe, being the work of an infinitely perfect
being, is the best that could be created; and with regard to
levees, they were not built out of theory, but are an evolution
from a matter of necessity.

Those "well-banked potato rows" which the author speaks
of in the introduction of his paper as existing in the Third Dis-
trict some twenty years ago, the writer, as a boy forty years
ago, knew to be levees of a fair size and section. They were
first located and built upon the banks of a bend, known generally
as the crescent of this city, and, from time to time, as caving
developed, they were moved back to circumvallate the caves, and,
at every recession, owing to the natural slope or lay of the bend,
their dimensions necessarily had to be increased. A few years
previous to our great high water of 1897, a few of the stretches of
levees in this bend passed through an evolution of woodwork
construction ; the requisite section of earth was superseded by
plank, posts and tie rods, and braced to the stone gutter curbs of
the Front street. They were called "boxed levees." They were
the source of a great deal of worry and uneasiness during the
high water of 1897, but by a great deal of work done upon them,
principally in rebracing, they withstood the pressure of that high
water.

To-day, by the author's advice and recommendation, these
stretches of levee have been removed riverward with increased
dimensions, part of the section of earthwork is built out on a
prepared base of piles 70 to 80 feet long, driven at uniform dis-
tances apart, and abbutting a water tight sheet pile bulkhead
on the front, with the expectation of replacing this pile bulk-
head revetment later on, with a river slope of solid earth, to be
supported on a pile foundation, — another stage of evolution.
The writer lives in hope that the pile wharf revetment protec-
tion work to the bend of the river along the Third District front,
the design and execution of the author, will keep these levees
from caving off into the river in the next decade or two.

,

384 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

As to the levees on the commercial front in 171 7, when they
were first built by De La Tour, they were probably "well-banked
potato rows," and served the purpose of the limited area they
then protected from inundation. To-day a greater part of the
commercial front, outside of the original levee line, has been
reclaimed to the city by accretions. In this fact we recognize
that while the "Father of Waters" is inclined to be bold and bad
in many of his ways, giving us a ducking occasionally, and an
unkind cut here and there in the bends, yet there is much to
be said to his credit, in which the commercial front of New
Orleans will bear him out.

From these beginnings in 1717 has evolved the "all-levee
system" as it exists to-day, and the writer believes that the por-
tion of it in the delta section of the Lower Mississippi will stand
on its own basis and merit. The immediate and most potent
motive of its advocates is the reclamation and protection of the
alluvial lands of the State bordering on that stream, and the
efforts in this direction will not cease until the purpose is accom-
plished.

Mr. L. W. Brown. — The impression seems to prevail that
my paper refers to the Lower Mississippi, as embracing only that
portion from the Red River to the Gulf. The arguments rela-
tive to increasing floods, their cause and the remedy, as ad-
vanced, embrace the river from Cairo to the Gulf; and, as verbally
explained to Major Harrod at a previous meeting, the construc-
tion of reservoirs, as relief avenues for floods, refers more par-
ticularly to that portion from Red River to the Gulf where
avenues of escape to sea can be most readily secured. The
paper refers to the construction of reservoirs above the Red River,
but rather for irrigation than as a relief measure.

The paper records the statement that I am not opposed to
levees; and I desire to emphasize the statement so as to posi-
tively remove any impression to the contrary, by advising that
I consider the levees absolutely necessary; but, as stated in my
paper, I consider that levee building, on the lines now adopted,
and without the execution of other equally important work in
connection therewith, will in a few decades entail disaster to all
interests in the alluvial sections, notwithstanding the united
opinions of the savants of river and levee matters to the contrary.

I would observe that both Major Richardson and Major
Harrod have, in their discussion, studiously avoided any refer-
ence to the absolute fact that the levees are enormously higher
to-day than two decades ago; and I would further observe that

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 385

the levees in 1897 were only by great exertion made to answer
their purpose, and that the high and substantial levees which
existed in 1897, as compared with the low and weak levees of
1882, offered no greater security against inundation; and as
history never fails to repeat, when mankind is inactive, it is not
improbable that in 1905, or earlier, the existing levees, which are
mountains as compared with those of 1882 or 1897, will be found
small and weak, and that protection will require more labor to
reinforce and supplement than was required on the levees of
1897, the total cost of which will never be known; but the cost
of reinforcement and losses from all causes will probably exceed
$100,000,000.

Major Harrod makes use of the following expression:

"The phenomena of any one part are explainable only by a
comparative study of all parts where similar conditions prevail."

How could this maxim be applied to the Mississippi River
in 1897, when all the parts embraced such phenomenal condi-
tions as produced most disastrous effects, and when there existed
no condition by which a comparison of any one part could be
made. Hence, there being no means to define the cause of the
phenomena of 1897 by comparison of one part of the river with
another, the cause is sought to be secured by an inquiry into the
effects which the work done by the Mississippi River Commission
has produced on the river, by a comparison of the same parts of
the river, or of the whole river as refers to some important fun-
damental element of the river, such as slope, velocity, cross-sec-
tion, etc., or, if no work had been performed in attempting to
improve the river, the same investigation would be necessary
to determine what was producing the disturbance, and, when
found, to determine to what extent mankind could assist in pro-
viding against reoccurrence; and I propose to show, replying
to Major Harrod's discussion, that the improvements now being
made on the Mississippi River are causing serious interference
with one of the fundamental elements of the river, — viz, the
slope. With a view of fortifying my conclusions, I will quote
a portion of the fourth section of the act of Congress, approved
August 29, 1879 (twenty-two years ago), which gave life to the
Mississippi River Commission, and which reads as follows:

"Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of said commission to take into
consideration and mature such plan or plans and estimates as will
correct, permanently locate and deepen the channel and protect the
banks of the Mississippi River ; improve and give safety and ease to

386 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

the navigation thereof ; prevent destructive floods, promote and
facilitate commerce, trade and the postal service, and when so pre-
pared and matured, to submit to the Secretary of War a full and de-
tailed report of their proceedings and actions, and of such plans,
with estimates of the cost thereof, for the purpose aforesaid, to
be by him transmitted to Congress."

I refer to the above to show that Congress positively directed
that the plans of the commission should embrace the protection
of the country against destructive floods, and the instructions
are in the most emphatic terms, "It shall be the duty of said
commission to mature such plans as will prevent destructive
floods." In passing this act, Congress unquestionably realized
the importance of the floods of the Mississippi, and that the
work of the commission appointed in 1874 to investigate the
river, as contained in their report to the Forty-third Congress,
second session, embraced the necessary investigation and con-
sideration by eminent hydraulicians to enable the commission
appointed in 1879 to proceed with absolute certainty of results;
and it is interesting to observe the language of the two acts. The
act of 1874 directs that a report shall be made of best methods
to protect the alluvial lands against inundation; whereas, the act
of 1879 is a positive order to "prevent destructive overflow."

The direct questions may be asked, have the results of the
work done by the commission during the past twenty-two years,
embracing an expenditure of $35,000,000, carried into effect the
direct order of Congress, as issued in 1879? As a matter of
fact, has not the expense entailed on the various States, parishes
and individuals depending on levees for protection, increased
tremendously since 1880, or since the plans of the Mississippi
River commission were adopted and partially executed; and does
not the rate of increase of cost and height of levees, between
1880 and 1901, very largely exceed the rate for any period of
twenty-two years from 1828 to 1880; and have the alluvial dis-
tricts of the Mississippi been more secure against inundation
during the past twenty-two years than they have for any like
period prior to 1882; and during the past twenty-two years have
not the actual losses from inundation far exceeded those of any
like period prior to 1880?

I propose to establish, by the writings, theories and actions
of the Mississippi River Commission, that the slope is decreased
in proportion as the height of floods are by their own works in-
creased, and will use the recorded and published observations of
the commission for evidence.

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 387

The following is a quotation from the original report of the
Mississippi River Commission to Congress in 1880:

"The bad navigation of the river is produced by the caving and
erosion of its banks and the excessive widths with the bars and
shoals resulting directly therefrom. It has been observed in the
Mississippi River, and is indeed true of all silt-bearing streams
flowing through alluvial deposits, that the more nearly the high-
river width, or width between the banks, approaches to uniformity,
the more nearly uniform will be the channel depth, the less will
be the variations of velocity and the less the rate of caving to
be expected in concave bends.

"This would seem to be so in the very nature of things, be-
cause uniformity of width secured by contraction will produce
increased velocity, and therefore increased erosion of the bed at the
shoal places, accompanied by corresponding deposit of silt at the
deep places.

''Uniform depth, joined to uniform width, that is to say, uni-
formity of effective cross-section, implies uniform velocity, and
this means that there will be no violent eddies and cross-currents,
and no great and sudden fluctuations in the silt-transporting power
of the current. There will, therefore, be less erosion from oblique
currents and eddies, and no formation of shoals and bars produced
by silt taken up from one part of the channel and dropped in an-
other.

"As the friction of the bed retards the flow of the water, any
diminution of the friction will promote the discharge of the floods.
The frictional surface is greater in proportion to volume of dis-
charge where the river is wide and shoal than where it is narrow
and deep. It follows, therefore, that after the wide shoal places
are suitably narrowed, and the normal sectional area is restored
by deepening the channel, the friction will be less than it was be-
fore. This will result in a more easy and rapid discharge of the
flowing water, and consequently in a lowering of the flood-surface.
It would seem, therefore, that the plan of improvement must com-
prise, as its essential features, the contraction of the waterway
of the river to a comparatively uniform width ; and the protection
of the caving banks.

"initial work.

"Under the authority conferred in Section 5 of the act, esti-
mates of cost of certain initial works, constituting a component
part of the general system of works contemplated, as submitted.

"These works of channel contraction and bank protection, which
in the judgment of this commission, may be advantageously under-
taken during the coming fiscal year or as soon as Congress sup-
plies the means, are confined to an aggregate length of 200 miles
of the shoalest water below Cairo, embracing the following local-
ities,— namely, New Madrid, Plum Point, Memphis, Helena, Choc-
taw Bend and Lake Providence."

For good reason, no doubt, although the public is not informed
as to that reason, the general plan of contraction of channel and

i

388 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

providing uniform width between banks, uniform cross-section
and velocity, as originally determined upon, seems to have been
abandoned, and, perhaps for the welfare of our section, it is for-
tunate that the original plan was not carried out.

It is interesting to note the conclusions of the commission
when the inauguration of the work was recommended in 1880.
The reports say that the first work "is confined to an aggregate
length of 200 miles . . . embracing the following localities, —
viz, New Madrid, Helena," etc. All this initial work recommended
is located from 600 to 800 miles from the outlet of the river ; and
all the money expended by the commission for twenty-two years,
except some small and spasmodic levee building and useless mat-
tress planting, has been spent in endeavoring to protect the work
done by the commission in the upper reaches, in violation of
nature's laws, and which would perhaps have been found unneces-
sary, as the bad conditions in these upper reaches would have cor-
rected themselves had the necessary assistance been provided by
improving the outfall ; hence a maxim : "To improve the flow or
discharge in any stream, improve the outfall and thus increase the
slope."

The work done on the Mississippi River during the past
twenty-two years is illustrated by a municipality which has a
proper and well-proportioned sewerage or drainage system, and in
which, as the city grows, considerable expenditure is made in the
enlarging and extension of the laterals without any improvement
of the main outlet, and experts are called to demonstrate why the
system is defective. The main trunk of the Mississippi, between
Vicksburg and the sea, is defective, and requires such improve-
ment that the slope will be increased in proportion as the eleva-
tion of surface of floods is increased by greater volumes.

The report of the commission, in 1880, contains the following:

"It follows, therefore, that after the wide shoal places are
suitably narrowed, and the normal section area is restored . . .
this will result in a more rapid discharge of the flowing water and
consequently in a lowering of the flood surface."

The above is precisely in line with the recommendation made
in my paper ; and I contend that the line of levees must be
constructed on lines to give the velocity determined as proper in
that portion of the river in which they are located ; but the inau-
guration of the work must be at the outfall, and the determination
of required velocity at different parts of the river must be decided
by the observation and consideration of the conditions secured by
the work from the outfall upwards.

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 389

Has the commission executed any work, according to the
strict interpretation of the first quotation above from their report
of 1880? Are they building levees, or recommending them to
be built, on the lines suggested by their report? Are they hold-
ing caving banks or attempting in any way to maintain the con-
cave sides of bends, which is necessary to carry out their recom-
mendation to secure uniform width, cross-section, velocity, etc.?
And does a glance at their reports, or does actual observation,
show either that their works of bank protection are stable or that
they satisfactorily answer their requirements ? As a matter of fact,
does the value of the bank protection works which have not
washed out and which are now serving any purpose, amount to
10 per cent, of the money expended for their construction? Is it
not evident that all the work done by the Mississippi River Commis-
sion during the past twenty-two years has been on lines contrary
to known hydraulic laws, and is there any reason why the work
should not fail ? Was it not the proper plan to inaugurate work
at the outlet of the M ississippi River and improve the discharge to
the sea before attempting to improve the upper trunk and laterals ?

The decreasing of slope with increasing flood elevations con-
clusively proves that hydraulic laws have been violated in connec-
tion with the river improvements.

The theory of the plans of the Mississippi River Commission,
as generally understood, are that an increased velocity and reduced
flood elevations will result from confining the volume, and that
any outlet, whether a natural bayou, crevasse or waste weir, would
not decrease the flood elevation, except within a few thousand feet
of the opening, and would, further, absolutely increase the height
of flood slope throughout the river. That the theory, as prac-
ticed by the Mississippi River Commission, is an absolute violation
of hydraulic laws is shown by the fact that any increase of flood
elevation at Cairo or Memphis occasions a flood elevation at Red
River and Carrollton, which is very much higher in proportion than
such a conclusion would determine proper ; in fact, the actual
heights, at the several points, above those of preceding seasons
of high water, are about the same, or, perhaps, more at the
lower end of slope ; whereas, with a rise of say 3 feet at Memphis
or Helena, the proportional height would be only a few inches at
Red River and Carrollton, which proves that the slope is de-
creased as flood heights increase.

The surface of water of the flood of 1897 was above the sur-
face of water of flood of 1890, at the several points in the river,
as follows: Carrollton, 3.07 feet; Red River, 3.53 feet; Vicks-

390 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

burg, 3.43 feet; Helena, 4.03 feet; Memphis, 2.06 feet; Cairo,
2.82 feet; which shows that the elevations of floods of 1897, in the
lower end of the slope, were much higher above the elevation of
flood of 1890 than they were at the upper end, which condition
is seen to be reversed from Vicksburg to the sea by comparing the
floods of 1890 with the floods of 1874. The height of the floods of
1890, above those of 1874, at the several points on the river, were
as follows, — viz, Carrollton, 0.4 foot ; Red River, 0.38 foot below ;
Vicksburg, 3.35 feet; Helena, 1.90 feet; Memphis, 1.60 feet; Cairo,
1.43 feet.

A consideration of the latter table shows that the river is
congested between the sea and Vicksburg; while the first table
shows that the congested condition extended to Helena, i.e., the
water came into these reaches faster than it could be discharged to
the sea.

In absence of full slope data, I propose to consider that the
gage readings of the Mississippi River Commission supply all re-
quirements for present purposes, and that they are susceptible of
reliable deductions as to intensity and variability of slope of floods
between points on the river ; as, according to the theory of the
Mississippi River Commission, the gage readings are not affected
by crevasses or other small and local conditions, although Major
Harrod, in his discussion, has thought fit to express an opposite
view. I will assume that the flood wave extended over a period
sufficient to absolutely fill the whole river, as it did in 1897 and in
other flood years, and will use the highest gage readings through-
out the river for securing a comparative table of slope for different
conditions.

The use of gage readings, as I propose, is generally considered
proper, and I quote "Seddon on River Hydraulics," where he
refers to gages, as follows :

"The gage relations on the Mississippi are not only espe-
cially stable, but they are also, in general, especially well-defined
single lines ; and, in that case, every variation which shows in the
surface levels of the same discharge at one of the gages must show
in the given ratio and the given period at the other. Changes of
plane are transferred as well as discharge curves, and, as far as
the gage relations below Arkansas City, each shows a single line for
both of these periods, this change of plane is necessarily an iden-
tity all the way down."

In the following table Column X is elevation of maximum
gage readings above o. C. D.; Column Y the slope between the
several points on the river, expressed, in order to avoid fractions,
in millimeters per mile. This table embraces the record of ten

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

391

seasons between 1874 and 1898, five of which were years of normal
floods, — 1878, 1885, 1889, 1896, 1898, and the other five are years
of high floods,— 1874, 1882, 1890, 1893, 1897.

For calculation of slopes, distances are taken as follows :

Cairo to Memphis 230 miles.

Memphis to Helena 76

Helena to Greenville 172

Greenville to Vicksburg 121

Vicksburg to Red River 166

Red River to Carrollton 192

Carrollton to the Sea 120

Years of High Floods.

Cairo.

Mempr

is

Helena.

Greenville.

Vicksburg.

Red River.

Carrollton.

Sea.

X

X

Y

X

Y

X

Y

X

Y

X

Y

X

Y

X

Y

ii7i

338.21

237-97

133

207.80

121

I

I4q.20 104

III.74

q=,

70.90

75

36.61

55

21

.26

39

342.71

239.12

V35

209.18

120

149. 68 105

114.79

SS

72.35

78

35-86

58

21

26

37

34I-64

239-57

135

209.70

119

1 151-45 103

"5-09

92

72.52

7«

37.IO

56

21

.26

40

1-93

340.I7

239-17

133

209.90

"7

1 I52.3O 102

iU-34

97

71-57

79

3S.36

.S3

21

.26

44

i«97

342.46

241.63

I32

213-73

"7

154.75 104

! 118.52

91

74-05

SI

1 40.08

54

21

.26

4«

Years of Normal Floods.

Cairo.

Memphis.

Helena.

Greenville.

Vicksburg.

Red River.

Carroll

ton.

Sea.

X

X

Y

X

Y

X

Y

X

Y

X

Y

x

Y

X

Y

•-■

327-%S

233-07

126

200.73

130

I46.05

97

106.99

98

63-27

80

32.21

49

21.26

2S

1885

329-84

233.22

128

202.68

12}

146.05

101

108

44

96 1

65.M

78

3446

50

21.26

34

ISS9

225.37

230.57

126

196. oS 138

I39-85

97

100

89

98

57-85

79

32.5I

40

21.26

29

iSq5

33004

232.37

129

200.40 I2S

142.60

103

105

04

96

61.25

80

34.61

4 3

21.26

34

189S

340.62

241.56

131

211.09 I22

154.16

103

115

44

97

68.15

87

36.81

5°

2I.2fi

39

As will be observed, a study of this table is very instructive.
The slope from Cairo to Memphis is, in comparison, quite regular,
with the several elevations, varying from 126 mm. per mile at eleva-
tion 327.88 feet at Cairo in 1878 to 135 mm. at 341.64 feet in 1890,
which shows that this stretch of river has a fairly uniform section
and that its condition, for discharge of floods, is superior to any of
the other sections. It will, however, be noted that the slope in
1897 was 132 mm. per mile and was less than that of any of the
other flood years with lower elevations, which would indicate an
increasing retrogression of the value of the channel for delivery of
floods.

The slope in the stretch between Memphis and Helena has, for
floods, gradually decreased from 121 mm. per mile at elevation of
237.97 feet at Memphis in 1874 to 117 mm. per mile with elevation
of 241.63 feet in 1897, which shows clearly a decreasing slope
with increasing elevation, and that this stretch cannot discharge any
large flood with safety. It will be further noted that the slope in
this stretch is very much greater under normal floods than in high
34

392 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

floods, the slope in 1878, at elevation of 233.07 feet, being 130 mm.
per mile and decreasing with considerable uniformity to 122 mm.
per mile at elevation of 241.56 in 1898. It will also be observed
that the slope is rapidly decreasing with time for both normal and
high floods, which proves that the flow conditions are being inter-
fered with.

The same condition of decreasing slopes with increasing flood
elevation is shown to exist in the stretch between Helena and
Greenville, where the slope, in 1874, was 104 mm. per mile with
elevation of 207.8 at Helena, and it was 104 mm. per mile in 1897
with elevation of 213.73 ^eet-

In the stretch between Greenville and Vicksburg, the slope
in 1897 was only 91 mm. per mile at elevation of 154.75 feet at
Greenville, while in 1874 it was 95 mm. per mile at elevation of
149.2 feet, showing a large decrease in slope with increase of ele-
vation of flood surface.

The stretch between Vicksburg and Red River shows a small
increase in slope, but not commensurate with the increase in head
or flood surface, and between Red River and Carrollton the slope
is less in 1897 with elevation of 74.05 at Red River, than in 1874
with elevation of only 70.9 feet, showing a congested condition,
retarding velocity and flow.

It is interesting to study the slope from Vicksburg to the sea
for the years of 1896, 1897 and 1898, and note the great increase
of slope in 1898 over that of 1896, which corroborates my views
as expressed in my paper, as follows :

"Why are maximum floods sporadic, seldom, if ever, occurring
in yearly succession . . . which clearlv demonstrates that the
floods with maximum elevations, even with equal volume of dis-
charge, cannot occur in succession, for the reason that the avenues
for passage of water are scoured out by the first flood, and the
conditions to retard the passage cannot be formed in the interval
of time between two flood periods."

And the table above clearly proves that the increasing height
of floods is "due to the increase of resistance for channel to clear
itself."

I fail to understand how the Mississippi River Commission can
proceed on the lines now adopted for improving the river. There
is so much evidence at hand and so many facts established to
prove not only the utter futility of the work, but that it must result
in unsatisfactory and disastrous results.

I have proved that increasing floods are decreasing the slope.
It is impossible to calculate the ratio, but, assuming that it will

FLOODS IX THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

393

be the same as shown by comparison of 1897 and 1874, the addi-
tional height of levee required at Carrollton to contain the floods
when the St. Francis Basin is leveed, will be not less than 5 feet.
Seddon, in "Reservoirs and the Control of the Lower Missis-
sippi," refers to the St. Francis Basin as follows :

"Altogether, then, from the evidence of this 1897 flood, there
is little doubt that to shut off the outflow completely from all these
great basins is to raise the high water stages of such floods from
six to eight feet above the level at which the natural reservoir
system of this river would have carried them ; and even in the in-
terests of a real flood protection alone, it would certainly be wise to
consider whether some less dangerous step into the unknown might
not be substituted for it."

Starling, on the "Mississippi River," says :

"The St. Francis was closed since 1893 to a distance measured
along the river of 120 miles and a gap of 100 miles still remains.
It is to the building of these levees and to the maintenance of the
lines previously existing that the unparalleled stages attained by
the water has been due."

And as for the highly improved alluvial lands below the Red
River, the writing of Prof. Lewis M. Haupt is sufficiently sug-
gestive : "The last stage of that property will be worse than the
first."

The investigations I have made of the methods now in hand
for the improvement of the Mississippi River suggest, as a com-
parison, an illustration wherein the Mississippi River, from Vicks-
burg to the sea, represents an old beer keg with the head knocked
out, set on end and provided with a rusty, worn-out choked
faucet, the key of which has long since been lost; while the river
above Vicksburg is represented by a brand new and thoroughly
banded whisky barrel set above and arranged to discharge into the
old beer keg by two, new highly-polished, non-choking, keyless
faucets, and the proprietor of all this outfit is guaranteed by the
designer and constructor that, by maintaining the whisky barrel
full, the old beer keg might be filled, but would never overflow.

It would appear that, to secure proper and satisfactory re-
sults, the work of improving this river must be inaugurated at the
sea, the first step being to provide a proper outlet for the ultimate
confined volume, and gradually extend the improvement to reach
the whole length and breadth of the stream. I am convinced that
no levee work, outlet work or jetty work singly will answer the
purpose, and that the work must be a combination of several dis-

394 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

tinct methods. In this opinion I am fortified by eminent hydrau-
licians, and will quote as follows :

Herman Haupt on "The Problem of the Mississippi," pub-
lished in the "Journal of the Franklin Institute," April, 1899, says:

"In May, 1897, the writer published several articles in the
New York "Sun" on the Mississippi River problem, the aim of
which was to show that of the systems proposed, neither the levee,
the outlet, the reservoir, nor any other, singly, would secure pro-
tection from overflow, but that a combination of several and an in-
telligent application of certain recognized principles, with a careful
study of local conditions was essential to a practical solution of
the problem presented."

This statement indorses the recommendations of my paper.
Professor Haupt further says, referring to the known and estab-
lished variation of slope :

"These variations of slope would necessarily produce varia-
tions of velocity, and unless the sediment had been previously
deposited every reduction in velocity would cause new deposits in
the bed, and every increase in velocity from contraction of the
cross-section by levees or otherwise would suspend such deposits,
or, in some cases, might even depress the bottom by producing a
scour.

"As there are variations of slope and constant contraction and
expansion of sectional area, there must necessarily be frequent
changes of velocity, and, as a matter of course, there will be de-
posits in some portions of the bed and none in others, with occa-
sional scour tending to the formation of holes."

This statement is justified by the known results which have
their cause verified by the fact that the slope decreases with the
increase of elevation of flood ; and, referring to the ultimate closing
of all the outlets from Cairo to the sea, he has the following to
say :

"If the partial closing of the levees in front of some of the
basins has resulted in such an enormous increase of flood height
that the most elevated levees would have been overtopped and
submerged but for the relief afforded bv crevasses, what results
may be expected when the whole river is confined by continuous
levees on both sides? If the volume of water that is poured into
the upper portion of the Mississippi is twice as ^great as is now
discharged at its mouth, what must be the elevation of the crest
lines of the flood when the volume is doubled? The idea that an
increase of velocity will result from the increased volume and, that
in consequence, a scour will be produced that will increase depth
sufficiently to compensate for increased height of flood has been
shown to be fallacious. If there was a continuous scour the ma-
terial must be deposited somewhere, and the only conceivable place

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 395

of deposit would then be at the Gulf, reinforced by all the material
brought in from the tributaries and from erosion of the banks, in
which case the amount would be so enormous that it would be al-
most impossible to maintain navigation and New Orleans might
become an inland city. Heretofore, relief has been afforded by
crevasses and cut-offs, by which it is said that half the volume in
flood stages has found its way to the Gulf through swamps, bayous
and secondary streams, and was not discharged through the passes.
When these avenues of escape are cut off there must necessarily
be a great increase in the flood height unless some other mode of re-
lief can be provided.

"The evidence presented should be conclusive that parallel
levees of any ordinary height, continuous on both sides of the
streams, with outlets all closed, compelling the river to carry and
discharge into the Gulf double the former volume of flood water
will not, with certainty, secure the country permanently against
overflow, but when the limit of the capacity for protection has been
attained the danger from crevasses, if they should occur, will be
vastly increased."

Prof. J. B. Johnson, before the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, in 1884, gave expression to his views, as
follows :

"It would seem, therefore, that in the river's present condi-
tion, there is no evidence that a confined flood will scour out its bed
so as to facilitate the discharge, and there is considerable evidence
against it. If the river flowed between straight parallel banks, such
as Captain Eads has constructed at the mouth of the river, there
then could be no such thing as discontinuous transportation of
sediment, and hence no alternate scour and fill. Then concentra-
tion of volume would be beneficial and would ultimately lower
the river bed. But this condition of things can never be reached on
the Mississippi River, and hence the concentration of flood volume
will be harmful rather than beneficial."

Seddon, in "Reservoirs and the Control of the Lower Missis-
sippi." invents a very appropriate maxim when he says :

"The idea is a fundamental one that the ills of the river in the
main lie in the variations of its* flow."

And the question may be asked, has any improvement been
made in this main evil during the past twenty-two years ? A truth-
ful answer would be that not only has no improvement been made,
but that the evil has increased.

The same writer, referring to the partial leveeing of the St.
Francis Basin, says :

"This line, as first built, was much too low to withstand the
increased flood heights that followed the restricted overflow, and
the great flood of 1897, the first that has come against it, broke
through the levee in a number of places before it had reached its

396 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

extreme by several feet. But it, nevertheless, gave the last and the
best indication of what flood heights may be expected when the
overflow into this natural reservoir system is entirely closed out."

Major Harrod has seen proper to state that the high water at
Carrollton is directly connected with the levee system, and attempts,
by a series of averages, to prove that the constantly increasing
height of flood waters are merely a natural conclusion and were
not unexpected, neither are they higher than was anticipated.
These conclusions open up a wide and interesting field for dis-
cussion, but for the time, I will refer to them only to make the
suggestion that the integrity of levees can be gaged only by that
of the weakest part. In this respect the levee is precisely similar
to a chain, the weakest link of which represents the maximum
strength of the chain ; hence, a levee of sufficient integrity to sus-
tain the flood of average elevation would be of no value whatever to
sustain the sporadic maximum floods ; and, as asked in the former
part of this paper, who can foretell, with absolute certainty, what
is the future maximum elevation of the floods of the Lower Missis-
sippi? From a careful consideration of the improvements now
being made on the river and the results, covering a period of
twenty-two years, are we not justified in anticipating that the
floods of 1897 will be largely exceeded?

Referring to the question of increased run-off from watersheds
from the deforesting of the western slopes of the Alleghenies, it
seems to be unsettled, although a preponderance of opinion con-
cludes that the future run-off will not exceed that of the past.

Humphreys and Abbot, on page 437 of their report of 1861,
referring to forest, state :

"The removal of the matted undergrowth and the softening of
the earth cause a greater quantity of rain to be absorbed, and the
exposure to sun increases evaporation."

Seddon makes the following observation :

"Cutting down forests, draining lands, reclaiming swamps,
with all the climatic changes that are assumed to go with such
development of a country, are each and all given a_ place in these
deductions, and that some of them actually have a place in the
flood regimens is possible ; but what this is, and what its magnitude,
and, indeed, even whether in a given case it would increase or de-
crease the flood extremes, is in general beyond the range of our
present knowledge of the subject."

Referring again to Major Harrod's discussion, we find that
he says :

''Abbot demonstrated the futility of attempting to grade up the
lower lands of the valley by deposit and overflow."

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 397

In the first place, Humphreys and Abbot's deductions and con-
clusions, while they are generally considered as being very valuable
and excellently suited to the conditions of forty years ago, are not
to be followed to-day without deep consideration. As a matter of
parallel, the rules and deductions governing the use of steam and
other engineering specialties, which were considered absolutely
perfect forty years ago, are now absolutely obsolete ; and it is in-
teresting to note the extreme height of perfection to which all
branches of engineering have attained, as compared with forty
years ago, excepting only the engineering work in connection with
the Mississippi River, which has for forty years made no positive
and solid advancement toward providing benefits, either commer-
cially or sanitarily, to the immensely valuable territory tributary
thereto ; and I do not consider that it is impracticable or impossible
to adopt measures which will vastly benefit all interests along
the Mississippi River, notwithstanding that Captain Abbot, some
forty years ago, concluded otherwise. I further believe that the
high attainments of the engineering profession in this country will
not allow the Mississippi River to become a bugbear of engineer-
ing inconsistencies, reprisals and criticisms, but will insist on the
adoption of such enlightened engineering works as will produce re-
sults which will be the wonder of the current century.

Major Harrod, in his discussion, says :

"The levee system has received thorough study and full dis-
cussion."

I ask, has an opportunity ever been afforded during the past
twenty-two years for a discussion of the river matter, and of
what use, in the light of the present experience and knowledge,
are the discussions of Humphreys and Abbot, and others of forty
years ago? Further, is it not a recognized fact that an attempt on
the part of any engineer to question the methods now adopted is
considered a breach of professional etiquette ; and, again, what posi-
tive conclusion has the Mississippi River Commission reached on
the subject that is accessible to the public? And again I ask,
would Barnard, Bailey, Forshey and Eads, were they living to-day,
hold the opinion they expressed forty years ago? A quotation
from Emerson eminently fits the foregoing :

"With consistency a great soul has nothing to do . . .
Speak what you think to-day in words as hard as cannon balls, and
to-morrow speak what to-morrow thinks, in hard words again,
though it contradicts everything you said to-day."

398 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

With candor and satisfaction, worthy of a less interesting and
important subject, Major Harrod, in his discussion, says:

. . . the people who wanted to live and plant in the
river States went on strengthening and extending the levees. It
is now the adopted system because it is proved thoroughly right
and practically useful. Levees have caused no elevation of the
bed of the river, no phenomena that were not anticipated, and
have developed no insurmountable difficulties. They have at all
times been, and they are now, worth every dollar they have cost.
So well have those who live behind them been satisfied of this,
that there is no relaxation of effort to complete the system."

Each word of the above provides a text, and an instructive and
interesting book could be written from this paragraph and entitled
"The Candor and Satisfaction of the Mississippi River Commis-
sion." I will refer to only a few of the many points this para-
graph suggests.

Has the Mississippi River Commission such knowledge, and
has it made such investigations as are necessary to determine, with
such positiveness as is contained in Major Harrod's language, that
the bed of the river is not being elevated? If they have, why
is it that this most valuable information is not made public? If the
flood elevations are increased, as past experience teaches us they
have been, and if they have occasioned a decrease in the slope of the
whole river, as is shown to be the case, although not published by
the Mississippi River Commission, by what hydraulic laws would
the deduction be made that the bed is not fouling ? If no phenom-
enon has occurred which was not anticipated, the Mississippi River
Commission is responsible for the losses this country sustained in
1897, amounting to upward of $100,000,000, by not adopting, in
1894, a grade for levees 4 feet above the high water of 1897, instead
of adopting this tremendous elevation in 1898; and with the same
reasoning, the Mississippi River Commission should at once give
us the proper elevation for levees in 1905, so that we can construct
them economically.

As to the statement that the people who live behind the levees
are satisfied and that they have not relaxed their efforts to raise
and enlarge the levees, as necessity demanded, it is most apparent
that with them it is "root, hog, or die." Ruin would follow their
inactivity; and their wonderful energy in enlarging levees and in
fighting the inevitable can be compared only with the achievements
of the most enlightened people that occupy the globe to-day.

A casual intruding observation presents itself in the shape
of a query as to how much the alluvial lands of the Mississippi

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 399

would be improved and enhanced in value to-day if only one-tenth
of the money spent on levees during the past twenty-two years had
been spent on the improvement of navigation of waterways, road-
ways, etc.

Major Harrod's remarks relative to reservoirs and the utiliza-
tion of river sediment for the benefit of mankind are the echo
from forty years ago, and will not withstand the intense search-
light investigation of the engineering profession of to-day. The
value of the industrial enterprises throughout the alluvial terri-
tory is becoming so enormous that we can no longer rest satisfied
with antiquated opinions or be governed by laws long known to be
obsolete; and the engineering profession, in the very near future,
will provide a way to secure to mankind the benefits which nature
intended should be imparted through the medium of the greatest
drain in the world, in like manner as this same profession has un-
locked nature's storehouse of coal, iron and other commodities now
so necessary for our existence.

Referring to Major Richardson's discussion, I must content
myself with referring to only the last two paragraphs, as the in-
troduction of Mark Twain as a competent river expert, and quot-
ing him as an authority, places the subject beyond my ability to
discuss it.

Considering the intense moment of the subject under discus-
sion, the immense interests involved and the prominent position
occupied by Major Richardson, together with his favorably known
characteristics, and the extent of his experience, I am greatly sur-
prised that he should choose to consider the matter in so careless
a light and treat it with so much irony and levity.

Major Richardson, in concluding his discussion, makes a state-
ment which is entitled to be classed as famous, which in substance
is that the elevations for grade of levees, as fixed by Humphreys
and Abbot forty years ago, was practically approved and adopted
by the commission in 1874, and by the Mississippi River Com-
mission, that no flood had come within 1 foot of some mysterious
grade fixed by the Mississippi River Commission at Carrollton, and
that only one flood has reached the mark set by Humphreys and
Abbot, forty years ago.

Referring to page 441 of Humphreys and Abbot's report, we
find the following, relative to proper heights for levees :

"To secure this end in the most economical manner, the oper-
ations of this survey indicate that levees should be constructed.
Near the mouth of the Ohio, they should be made about 3 feet
above the actual high-water level of 1858 . . . Between that

400 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

locality and Baton Rouge, it should be kept uniformly about 4 feet,
and below Baton Rouge about 3 feet. If the water-mark of 1858 be
unknown at any locality, it may be reduced to any well-determined
local mark by the table in Chapter II ... It should be re-
marked that these heights are based upon the supposition of abso-
lute security."

Now understand, clearly, that these heights refer to the top
of levee above the surface of the high water of 1858, to provide
"absolute security" against inundation. The elevation of the high
water at Cairo in 1858 was 49.56 feet and the top of levees, as
recommended, 52.56 feet. The high water of February, 1883, was
52.17 feet, which made the top of levees as recommended by
Humphreys and Abbot only 6 inches out of the water. The surface
of the high water at Carrollton in 1858 was 15.1 feet, and the top
of levees, as recommended, 18.1 feet. The high water of 1897 was
19.17 foot, or 1.07 foot above the top of such levee.

Supplementing with facts from recent history, I would state
that, succeeding the high water of 1874, the City Council, who then
had charge of the levees throughout this city, fixed the elevation
of the top of levees 3 feet above the high water of 1874, or at
18.7 feet. In 1890 Major B. M. Harrod, member of the Missis-
sippi River Commission, then city engineer and consulting engineer
of the Orleans Levee Board, fixed a grade for the construction
of wharves and landings along the city front at 18.6 feet, and no
doubt recommended that this elevation would satisfy all future
needs. Succeeding the flood of 1897, the Orleans Levee Board
fixed the grade of levees throughout the Parish of Orleans, ex-
cepting the commercial front, at 4 feet above the high water of
1897, or at 22.17 feet at Carrollton, which is 5.07 feet higher than
the elevation of the top of levee as fixed by Humphreys and Abbot,
forty years ago.

Referring to the concluding paragraph of Major Richardson's
discussion, wherein he expresses satisfaction with the deductions
and conclusions of the investigation made by Humphreys and
Abbott, forty years ago, and those of the Mississippi River Com-
mission, I can but express my astonishment, considering the ex-
perience of the past ten years, that an engineer of his attainment
and his experience would be satisfied with any past conclusions, and
that he is not among the first to advocate measures looking toward
relieving a people who have the record of being the highest taxed
and the poorest protected of any people in America, and whose
ability to exist is accounted for only by the enormous fertility of
the countrv.

FLOODS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 401

That the engineering profession makes not only wealthy indi-
viduals, corporations and nations is no canard, although the public
fails to recognize such distinction ; and this fact has been very
gracefully presented to the world by the address of Past President
Wallace at the meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers
at London, England, in July, 1900, as also by Past President Malo-
chee of the Louisville Engineering Society. With such a merited
honor, and with such responsibilities, can the profession allow the
Mississippi River to be continually menacing, with disaster and
destruction, a most valuable country, which is susceptible of extra-
ordinary growth, resulting in great wealth, and is it not incumbent
on the Louisiana Engineering Society, whose members, owing to
their location, are most in touch with the interests to be served, to
inaugurate and pursue a vigorous and unbending policy until
success is achieved, and thus maintain the prestige of the profes-
sion, receive the encomium of a grateful people and secure the satis-
faction of having accomplished that which well served our time
and o-eneration?

402 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

OBITUARY.

David Walker Hardenbrook.

Member, Montana Society of Engineers.

In the death of David Walker Hardenbrook, the Montana
Society of Engineers lost a member of whom it may be said that
he was truly a product of Montana, as he was born in the town
of Deer Lodge, on March i, 1869, and received his education and
spent the greater part of his life within the boundaries of the
State. Most of his earlier years were spent upon the ranch, and
his education necessarily started in the country school-house.

In 1885 he began the preparatory course in the College of
Montana, at Deer Lodge, Mont. He entered the freshman year
of the course in mining engineering in the fall of 1887, and received
his degree in June, 1892.

He 'began his life's work under Mr. F. W. C. Whyte, a mem-
ber of this Society, and at that time chief engineer of the Butte,
Anaconda and Pacific Railway, then in process of construction.
His service with this company extended through many of the
branches of the work. He was draftsman in the chief engineer's
office for some time, and later he took up the field work in various
branches as topographer, level-man, transit-man and finally as engi-
neer in charge of construction.

Three years were spent in the employ of this company, and
the following two years in miscellaneous engineering work
throughout the State, mostly in public land surveying under Mr.
H. B. Davis, of Deer Lodge, and later with Messrs. Sizer & Keerl,
of Helena.

Later he became associated with Mr. Chester B. Davis, the
eminent hydraulic engineer, during the time that gentleman was
gathering data concerning the water supply in the vicinity of
Anaconda, Mont.

About this time, during the summer of the year 1897, he
was asked to go to Mexico, as assistant engineer for the Ameri-
can Mining Company, at El Oro, under a contract for two years,
and his acceptance of this invitation marked a turning point in his
.life, as the hardships he there endured laid the foundation for the
disease which finally resulted in his death.

He took up his work in Mexico under trying conditions,
being put in charge of a party on railroad location, all of whom
were native peons, and only one of whom could speak English
and had been on work of that kind before.

The fact that Mr. Hardenbrook did not know a word of
Spanish was also against him, but he went at the job with de-

OBITUARY. 403

termination; and with the aid of the assistant whom I have men-
tioned, he mastered a little Spanish and successfully carried on
his work.

About this time he was stricken with typhoid fever and spent
two months in a hospital in the City of Mexico.

Upon his recovery he returned to his work, but in a short
time was obliged to go into the hospital again, owing to a throat
trouble, probably an after-effect of his first illness.

Two months were spent in an effort to get well, and though
he worked the balance of his time, his health was much broken.

His two years being up, he returned to Montana in June,
1899, coming by way of Vera Cruz, sailing thence to Havana,
Cuba, and on to New York, and returning thence by rail to
Montana, visiting many of the larger cities on the way.

He became an employe of Messrs. Harper & Macdonald, civil
and mining engineers, at Butte, Mont., and later was with the
Montana Ore Purchasing Company, in the engineering department.

He finally accepted a position under Mr. F. S. Jones, chief
engineer, B. A. & P. Ry., as resident engineer, located at Ana-
conda, Mont. His health was failing rapidly at this time, and
after a few months in this last position he was compelled to
resign, and upon the advice of friends went to California in
search of renewal of his former vigor and strength. But it was
not to be, and, after lingering some time, he passed away on
February 24, 1901.

David Walker Hardenbrook was somewhat backward in his
demeanor, and perhaps slow in gathering friends, but he never
lost a friend once made.

As a tribute to his worth as a man, and to his ability as an
engineer, Mr. F. S. Sizer, the President of this Society, at present
sojourning in Mexico recently writes : "I have just learned
of the death of Walker Hardenbrook and wish to join you and
other friends in mourning his loss, I know that those mem-
bers of our Society who enjoyed his personal acquaintance will
feel as I do, that the highest tribute of praise to his character
and life cannot do more than simple justice to his worth. He was
singularly upright and honest and of more than average ability,
being especially adaptable to difficult conditions as they arose in his
professional work. During one summer, I think about six years
ago, he was in my employ, and a more faithful assistant I never
knew. Since then I have come in contact with him in Butte, and
predicted for him a notable career."

As

SOCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Vol. XXVI. JUNE, 1901. No. 6

PROCEEDINGS.

Engineers' Club of* St. Louis.

528th Meeting, June 5. 1901. — Held at 1600 Locust street; Vice-Presi-
dent Kinealy presiding. ,

Attendance, twenty-four members and ten visitors.

Upon motion being duly carried, the reading of the minutes of the 527th
meeting was dispensed with, as the same had been printed and circulated
among the members.

The doings of the 311th meeting of the executive committee were re-
ported.

The application for membership of Mr. John I. Boggs was read. Messrs.
Hans C. Toensfeldt and Arthur Tappan North were elected to membership,

The subject of the evening was a paper by Mr. A. H. Blaisdell, entitled
"The Western River Steamboat."

Mr. Blaisdell exhibited about fifty lantern slides prepared by himself
from photographs of boats and drawings, detailed some tests of steamboat
performances, illustrated the path of the paddle wheel and its slip, gave ex-
amples of speed calculations and outlined the method of designing a steel
hull, with calculations of stability, strength, etc.

The discussion was participated in by Messrs. Flad, Bryan and others.

Adjourned to library room where justice was done to a light lunch pro-
vided by the entertainment committee.

Adjourned until September 18, when Mr. J. A. Ockerson will present a
paper entitled "The Mississippi River: Physical Characteristics and Methods
of Improvement."

W. G. Brenneke, Secretary.

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Regular Meeting, June 7, 1901. — Called to order at 8.30 p.m. by the
President, Prof. C. D. Marx.

The minutes of the last regular meeting were read and approved.

Mr. Harry A. Noble, with Board of Public Works, San Francisco, who
had been proposed at the last meeting by F. C. Herrmann, Hermann Kower,
C. E. Grunsky and Luther Wagoner, was declared duly elected a resident
member of the Society upon count of ballots.

The proposition of Mr. James Spiers, Jr., to become a member, indorsed
by Luther Wagoner, C. D. Marx, E. F. Haas and Adolf Lietz, was ordered
to ballot, it having been duly approved by the Board of Directors.

PROCEEDINGS. 65

Mr. W. H. Smyth, consulting engineer of San Francisco, and Mr.
Franklin Riffle, civil engineer of San Francisco, were reinstated to full mem-
bership in the Society, upon due approval by the directors.

The death of Mr. B. T. Lacy, member Technical Society, was announced,
and the following committee notified through the Board of Directors to
draw up a suitable resolution in memory of the deceased member : Mr. John
Richards, Mr. Geo. W. Dickie and Mr. Geo. E. Dow.

Mr. John Richards then read the paper of the evening, entitled "In-
dustries of the Upper Rhine," based upon personal observations made
during a recent European visit.

The subject was discussed by Mr. Geo. W. Dickie.

Meeting adjourned.

Otto von Geldern, Secretary.

Engineers' Club of Cincinnati.

124TH Regular Meeting (postponed), Cincinnati, Ohio, May 23, 1901.
— Dinner was served at 6.15 p.m.

The regular meeting was called to order at 7.15 p.m. with President
Jewett in the chair, and eleven members present.

Minutes of the meeting of April 18 were read and approved.

The question announced for discussion, "What Can be Done to Increase
the Usefulness of the Cincinnati Engineers' Club?" was taken up, several
members making suggestions that the members themselves take more inter-
est in the affairs of the Club, by a more regular attendance at the meetings,
and by the preparation of papers and questions for discussion, inviting en-
gineers not members to attend the meetings and join the Club; that the
Club interest itself in public matters of an engineering nature, by expressing
itself when questions of engineering construction or the employment of
engineering talent on public works are proposed.

In this connection the Secretary read a letter addressed to the President
from Mr. John C. Trautwine, Jr., Secretary of the Association of Engineer-
ing Societies, offering to assist in any way that he could to advance the
usefulness or increase the attendance and membership of the Club.

The President announced the death, which occurred on May 14, of
Alfred Petry, one of the charter members of the Club, and one who always
took an active interest in its affairs. On motion that the President appoint
a committee to prepare a suitable memoir, the following were announced as
such committee : Messrs. Jewett, Devenish and Wilson.

Air. James A. Stewart read the paper for the evening, on the subject,
"A Plan to Utilize Unemployed Labor," being a suggestion for a plan by
which men in the various trades with scant employment during the dull
winter months, as well as dealers in materials, were to be employed in the
construction of buildings, etc., under an arrangement by which they were to
give their labor and materials, receiving therefor a certain proportion of its
value and retaining an interest for the balance in an organization somewhat
on the plan of a Building Association. Discussion by Messrs. Wulff, Deven-
ish, Jewett, Fritsch, Pfister, Bogen, McAvoy (visitor) and Punshon.

On motion, a vote of thanks was extended to Mr. Stewart for his paper.

Adjourned.

J. F. Wilson, Secretary.

EVERY MEMBER OF THE

Association of Engineering Societies

should have and use

The Engineering Index.

Originally started by Prof. J. B. Johnson in the Journal of
the Association of Engineering" Societies, this great work has been
continued since 1895 solely by

The Engineering Magazine.

Prof. Johnson says :— " The work has been
far better performed by The Engineering Maga-
zine, both in scope and thoroughness, than I
was ever able to do."

The Engineering Index is published as a part of each num-
ber of The Engineering Magazine and also as a separate publica-
tion. In the latter form it is printed on only one side of the paper
for the use of those who wish to cut it up for card index purposes.
The subscription price of either publication alone is $3.00 a year;
but both publications will be sent to one address for $4.00 a
year. Send for sample copies.

THE ENGINEERING MAGAZINE,

120-122 LIBERTY STREET,

LONDON OFFICE:
222-225 STRAND, W. C. NEW YORK.

As

SOCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Vol. XXVI. JANUARY, 1901. No. i.

PROCEEDINGS.

Engineers' Club of St. Louis.

516TH Meeting, December 5, 1900. — The meeting was called to order at
8 o'clock ; with President Chaplin in the chair. Thirty-five members and six
visitors were present. The minutes of the 515th meeting were read and ap-
proved. The minutes of the 300th meeting of the Executive Committee were
read.

The applications for membership of Messrs. Wilbur Hayes Thompson
and George Dyer Johnson were presented to the Club.

The annual reports of the Executive Committee and Secretary were
read, and on motions duly seconded were received and filed. The Treas-
urer's report was read and referred to the Executive Committee. The report
of the Board of Managers was received and filed. It contained detailed
statistics of the Association of Engineering Societies prepared by the Gen-
eral Secretary, Mr. John C. Trautwine, Jr. The local board recommended the
adoption of resolutions by which it might be possible to secure advertise-
ments for the Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies, and in
this way increase the general fund of the Club. The commissions for securing
such advertisements were to be paid from the general fund as provided for in
the plans submitted by the Board of Managers. Upon being amended the
resolutions were duly seconded and carried. The amendment provides that
after the plan devised by the local Board of Managers is submitted to the
Executive Committee for approval and passed, it be also presented to the
Club for final action.

The report of the Entertainment Committee was received and filed.

The Librarian's report was read and filed. The library during the past
year had received considerable attention, a large number of books having
been added and a most convenient card-index system adopted.

It was moved and seconded, and the motion carried, that the arrange-
ments for the annual dinner be left to the Executive Committee.

The Nominating Committee made its report with the following nomina-
tions :

For President — E. J. Spencer.

For Vice-President — J. Pitzman.

For Secretary — William G. Brenneke.

2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

For Treasurer — George I. Bouton.

Librarian — J. L. Van Ornum.

Directors— A. H. Blaisdell, E. E. Wall.

Board of Managers — W. A. Layman, S. E. Freeman.

Additional nominations were made for office of Vice-President, — viz,
William Bouton and J. H. Kinealy.

Mr. William Bouton read a short paper on the "Probable Error per Tape
Length in Surveyor's Field Work." A discussion was given of the errors
arising from measurements in surveyors' field work, a distinction being made
between the error per tape length and that per unit length. The discussion
was participated in by Messrs. Pitzman, J. L. Van Ornum, B. H. Colby,
Robert Moore and E. A. Hermann.

Adjourned to adjoining room, where a light lunch was served.

F. E. Bausch, Secretary.

517TH Meeting, December 19, 1900. — The annual dinner of the Club was
held at the St. Nicholas Hotel at 7.30 p.m. ; with President W. S. Chaplin in
the chair at the head of the table. Thirty-nine members and one visitor were
present. After the dinner was over the result of the letter ballot for officers
for the new year was announced as follows :

President — E. J. Spencer.

Vice-President — No election ; none of the three candidates receiving a
majority.

Secretary — William G. Brenneke.

Treasurer — George I. Bouton.

Directors— A. H. Blaisdell, E. E. Wall.

Members of Board of Managers — W. A. Layman, S. E. Freeman.

As Mr. Pitzman requested the withdrawal of his name as candidate for
election to Vice-Presidency, the contest for office lay between the two re-
maining nominees. A new ballot was taken, resulting in the election of
J. H. Kinealy.

Mr. Chaplin, as retiring president, offered some timely suggestions.
The engineer, due to his superior education, should take a greater interest in
the guidance of public affairs. He should be regarded as authority on all
matters pertaining to public improvements.

Mr. Chaplin surrendered the chair to Mr. E. J. Spencer, who presided
the rest of the evening. Mr. Spencer alluded to the high character of the
Engineers' Club, and its important work in general.

Mr. A. L. Johnson spoke on "What Are We Here For?" He was of the
opinion that the Club as a unit might exert its influence on subjects of public
importance. In reply to this, one of the members referred to the action of
the Club on the filtration question, the results of which are fresh in the minds
of all Club members.

Mr. Robert E. McMath spoke on "Little Given, but Much Required."
He alluded to the great work of city improvements carried on with practi-
cally no funds at hand. His remarks were of great interest, as they dealt
with home institutions.

In the absence of Mr. H. H. Humphrey, who was sick, the Chair in-
vited Prof. F. Spalding, of the State University, Columbia, Mo., to make a
few remarks. He spoke on the "practical and impractical" side of engineer-
ing. Reference was made to the advantages of belonging to an engineers'
club, where the practical ideas of engineers are discussed.

PROCEEDINGS. 3

Prof. J. L. Van Ornum spoke entertainingly on "Solar Walks of Engi-
neering."

Following the above, short speeches were made by Messrs. Nipher and
Ockerson.

A motion was made and duly carried that a vote of thanks be tendered
the past officers. A unanimous vote was cast, members rising.

Meeting adjourned.

F. E. Bausch, Secretary.

518TH Meeting. — Held at 1600 Lucas Place, January 2, 1901, 8.15 p.m.;
Col. E. J. Spencer presiding. Twenty-two members and seven visitors were
present.

The Secretary reported the minutes of the 516th and 517th meetings
were not ready for presentation to the Club, and requested that reading of
them be postponed until the next meeting. The request was granted.

Minutes of the 301st and 302d meetings of the Executive Committee
were read, but no action was taken upon them, as they had not been approved
by the Executive Committee.

The following candidates for membership were balloted on and declared
unanimously elected, viz : Wilbur Hayes Thompson, George Dyer Johnson.

The application for membership of Edward C. Dicke and William C.
Zelle were read and referred to the Executive Committee.

A communication was read announcing the death, on May 29, 1900, of
Mr. A. J. Sypher, non-resident member, of Millerstown, Pa.

The announced subject for the evening was a paper by Prof. J. L. Van
Ornum, on "Purification of Sewage by the Septic Process."

As the Club was honored by the presence of Prof. Emery S. Johnson,
Professor of Commerce and Transportation, University of Pennsylvania,
and member of the United States Isthmian Canal Commission, a departure
from the announced subject of the evening was made, and Professor Johnson
was invited to speak on the work of the Isthmian Canal Commission. The
speaker is chairman of the committee appointed to investigate the commercial
features of the Isthmian Canal, but did not discuss those features, his re-
marks being limited to the engineering problems only. The speaker's talk
was informal, but he presented in a quite brief but very instructive and en-
tertaining manner the results of the work of the commission in investigating
the subjects of the construction of the Isthmian Canal, by and under the con-
trol of the United States Government, across Central America.

The speaker began with a short historical review of previous investiga-
tions and attempts at a solution of the problem, and then explained that three
routes had received the chief study of the commission :

(1) A possible route across the Isthmus of Darien.

(2) The route through the State of Panama, traversing Lake Bohio,
recommended and adopted by the French, and

(3) The route through the States of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, travers-
ing Lake Nicaragua, and known as the Nicaragua route.

From the purely engineering standpoint, the Darien route seemed in-
ferior to both others, owing to the fact that in order to construct a tide level
canal a great tunnel would have to be constructed, and for a high level canal it
did not lend itself as readily as the other routes. The commission considered
a tunnel in a canal more objectionable than one or more locks.

4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Of the remaining two routes, the Panama seemed the more practicable
as regards engineering features, but the undesirability of the concessions it
was considered possible to secure led the commission to recommend the
Nicaragua route.

The latter route will require the construction of a large masonry dam
across the San Juan River, the construction of a harbor at each end of the
canal, the building of a number of miles of artificial canal and the improve-
ment of existing waterways. The controlling factor in the time required to
construct the canal is the construction of the dam. It has been estimated
this would require about eight years' time (possibly only six), and that the
entire canal could be finished in this time without unnecessary duplication of
plant.

The estimated cost of the canal is about $200,000,000.

A discussion then followed, bringing out a number of interesting points.
The discussion was participated in by Messrs. Pitzman, Bryan, Colby and
Grimm.

The President, on behalf of the Club, then thanked Professor Johnson
for his very interesting talk.

The Chair then asked the late Committee on Entertainment to provide
a lunch for the next meeting.

Adjourned at 10 p.m. W. G. Brenneke, Secretary.

519TH Meeting January 16, 1901. — Held at 1600 Lucas Place, 8.30 p.m.;
President Spencer presiding.

Minutes of the 516th, 517th and 518th meetings were read and were ap-
proved with corrections.

Minutes of the 301st, 302d and 303d meetings of the Executive Committee
were read.

The Secretary, who had been appointed by the Executive Committee to
act in conjunction with the Treasurer, in auditing the accounts of the re-
tiring Treasurer, reported the accounts correct.

The Committee on Annual Dinner reported a deficit of $18, and motion
was carried to appropriate this amount from the Club's funds to cancel the
indebtedness.

Notice was given that those members desiring the report of the Nicaragua
Canal Commission (not the Isthmian Canal Commission) could obtain the
same by communicating with Rear-Admiral Walker, Washington, D. C.

Letters were read from the President of the Fociety of Civil Engineers
of France to the President, and to Mr. J. A. Ockerson, the Club's representa-
tive at the convention of the French Society last summer. These letters con-
veyed an expression of sympathy and an assurance of the continuation of the
friendly relations now existing between the two societies.

A pamphlet containing the reports of the receptions given by the French
Society during the period of the Paris Exposition of 1900, in which the Club's
delegate, Mr. Ockerson, participated, was received.

Mr. Ockerson donated to the Club a book on the manufacture and use of
cements, which is a prospectus of the "Societe Ginirala et Unique des Ciments
de la Porte e France."

The death of Mr. J. M. Dvesloge on September 17, 1900, was announced.

Mr. Edward C. Dicke and Mr. William C. Zelle were unanimously
elected to membership.

PROCEEDINGS. 5

The subject of the evening was a paper by Prof. J. L. Van Ornum, en-
titled "The Purification of Sewage by the Septic Process." Professor Van
Ornum first reviewed the development of the septic process, in practice and
in theory, and then discussed the problems needing further study and how
such investigations might be made. He considered the system beyond the
experimental stage and that it had been thoroughly tried and proven a suc-
cess. The author expected that as the application of established principles
is perfected and further investigations are made its efficiency will become
still greater and its field of application be extended.

Discussion of the paper was participated in by Messrs. Russell and A. L.
Johnson.

The Chair asked for report from the Committee on Monument to James
B. Eads. Mr. Ockerson reported that as far as he knew no meeting had been
held by the committee during the past year.

There was no report from the Committee on Smoke Prevention, all of
the members of that committee being absent.

The Chair announced the appointment of the following Entertainment
Committee: H. H. Humphrey, Chairman; D. W. Roper, W. H. Reeves.

Adjourned to another room, where lunch was served.

W. G. Brenneke, Secretary.

Engineers' Society of Western New York.

Regular Meeting, January 2, 190 1. — Meeting called to order by the
President at 8.30 p.m. The following members present: Messrs. Haven, Nor-
ton, Vanderhoek, Knapp, Roberts, C. F. Morse and Weston; also visitor H. C.
Booz.

The minutes of the last regular meeting were approved as printed.

The President said, "By your ballots you have elected, as members, Jasper
S. Youngs, John T. Herron, John J. Clahan, Charles S. Boardman, Henry
Clark, Harry Bartlett Alverson, Frank L. Bapst, and as associates, Emmett
W. Huntington, Charles Mosier, Louis Marburg." Applications for member-
ship from David A. Decrow and Horace C. Booz as members, James Frank-
lin, George E. Marsh, Mathew S. Gardiner and Raymond J. Ryan as juniors,
Samuel J. Dark, Albert William Caines and William Franklin, Jr., as asso-
ciates, were received, approved and ordered to letter ballot.

A letter from Mr. T. Guilford Smith, Director of the Society since its
organization, relating to fuller information being necessary on letter ballots
was read, and the attention of all Committees on Membership was called to
the matter, and they were requested to see to it that fuller information was
given in the applications.

The President called the attention of the Society to the necessity of the
members attending the meetings and talking on subjects of current interest
relating to their professions in Western New York. He remarked that it
made no difference what measures should be adopted by the Executive Board
or the officers so long as the members did not appear at the meetings and
talk on these subjects, and that many engineers are disappointed that their
profession is not recognized as a force in the community the same as the
lawyers and other professional men, but this is very much owing to them-
selves in that they keep their knowledge hid under their own craniums.

6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Until they come to the meetings and talk on subjects of current interest to
the public of Western New York, and have such discussions published, they
cannot expect to be recognized as having any knowledge of value to the
public. During the last six months two docks have failed from overloading,
in both cases involving loss of human life, and yet not one word has appeared
in the public newspapers from the engineers of Buffalo in regard to the
cause of these disasters, nor any suggestion that they know how to construct
a proper dock. Attention was called to several other public works about
which the members of this Society have been silent

On motion of Mr. Vanderhoek, seconded by Mr. Norton, it was voted
that the President and the Executive Board be authorized to appoint com-
mittees to furnish topics for discussion on any subject that may be sug-
gested.

The President then asked the members present to suggest topics, and the
names of the men for such committees. The President then appointed com-
mittees of the Society as follows :

Past-President George A. Ricker, on Docks.

John T. Herron, on Gas.

Thomas W. Wilson, on Modern Street Railroads.

Edward B. Guthrie, on the Engineering Exhibit at the Paris Exposition.

Major Thomas W. Symons, on Niagara River Regulation.

George H. Norton, on Buffalo River Cut-offs.

The President was requested to write to several other gentlemen not now
members of the Society, asking them to address the Society on several sub-
jects,— namely, "Concrete Construction," "Goat Island Bridge," "Engineer-
ing Features of the Steel Plant"

Meeting adjourned at 10 p.m. G. C. Diehl, Secretary.

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Regular Meeting, January 4, 1901. — Called to o. der at 8.30 p.m. by
Vice-President Falkenau, who announced officially the death of the honored
President of the Society, Mr. George W. Percy, and in a few words spoke
of the many virtues of the man who for the past two years had been the head
of the organization, and whose sudden loss came as a great shock to those
who had been constantly in contact with him.

The members rose in honor to the memory of the late President.

The minutes of the last regular meeting were read and approved. The
following gentlemen were elected to membership in the Society, having re-
ceived the requisite number of votes : Members, Norman B. Livermore,
civil engineer, San Francisco; Harris D. Connick, civil engineer, San Fran-
cisco; John J. Hollister, civil engineer, Santa Barbara; Charles M. Kurtz,
civil engineer, San Francisco; Perry F. Brown, civil engineer, San Fran-
cisco.

The Nominating Committee, through its Chairman, Mr. C. E. Grunsky,
made a report, placing in nomination the following members to fill the offices
of the Society for the year 1901 :

For President— Prof. C. D. Marx.

For Vice-President — D. C. Henny.

For Secretary — Otto von Geldern.

PROCEEDINGS. 7

For Treasurer — Edward T. Schild.

For Directors — Edward F. Haas, Samuel C. Irving, Adolf Lietz, Paul
W. Prutzman, Luther Wagoner.

The report was ordered received, and the Secretary instructed to prepare
the ballots for the annual election, to be held January 18, the Chair ap-
pointing as tellers for the occasion Charles M. Kurtz and Perry F. Brown.

A memoir in honor of the late President G. W. Percy was read by Mr.
G. A. Wright, who had been appointed for this duty by the Vice-President
at the previous directors' meeting.

The memoir was ordered received and spread in full upon the minutes;
also to be published in the Journal of the Association, with an additional
number of extra copies to be printed for the family and friends of the de-
ceased.

Major Charles E. L. B. Davis read a paper in discussion of the subject
placed before the Society at the meeting of December by Mr. George W.
Dickie, entitled "The Need of Education of the Judgment in Dealing with
Technical Matters."

Major Davis's statements led to further discussion of the interesting
subject, which was participated in by Messrs. Vischer, Wright, Wagoner and
others.

Adjourned. Otto von Geldern, Secretary.

Directors' Meeting, January 26, 1901. — Called to order at 4 p.m. by
President Marx. Present, Directors Marx, Prutzman, Lietz, Schild and von
Geldern.

The Chair appointed the following Committees : Executive — Messrs.
Wagoner, Prutzman and Haas. Finance — Messrs. Lietz, Irving and Schild.
Members on the Board of Management, Associati n of Engineering So-
cieties— D. C. Henny and Otto von Geldern.

After approving the proposition of the Secretary to invite Mr. Charles
Burckhalter to deliver an address before the Society on his results of photo-
graphing the solar corona at Siloam, in May, 1900, the meeting adjourned.

Otto von Geldern, Secretary.

Engineers' Club of Cincinnati.

13TH Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio, December 20, 1900. — Dinner
was served at 6.30 p.m. The regular meeting was called to order at 8 p.m.;
President Punshon in the chair. Twenty members present.

Minutes of the meeting of November 15 were read and approved.

Applications for membership were presented as follows :

Guy M. Gest, general contractor, 90 Perin Building, Cincinnati, for as-
sociate membership.

R. J. Bevenish, assistant engineer, Board of Trustees, Commissioners of
Water Works, California, for active membership.

John P. Brooks, Professor of Civil Engineering, State College of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, Ky., for active membership.

On ballot being taken Mr. James C. Hobart was elected an active member.

The letter from Professor Diemer, presented at the last meeting, in refer-
ence to the establishment of a Department of Mechanical Engineering at the

8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

University of Cincinnati, was taken up, and after some discussion was re-
ferred to Messrs. Bogen and Baldwin for report as to the advisability of the
Club taking any action in the mattter.

The reports of the Secretary and Treasurer for the year 1900 were pre-
sented, ordered received and filed and printed, together with a revised list
of members for distribution.

The report of the Secretary shows that the attendance has fallen off
from 18 in 1899 to 16.3 in 1900; that the membership has also fallen off from
97 at the end of 1899 to 88 at the end of 1900. There were 5 new members
elected during the year, 1 death, 9 resignations and 4 members dropped for
non-payment of dues.

The Treasurer's report shows receipts amounting to $662.50, disburse-
ments $614.85 and a balance on hand of $343.60.

Officers for the year 1901 were elected as follows :

President — William C. Jewett

Vice-President — Louis E. Bogen.

Directors — A. O. Elzner, C. N. Miller, H. E. Warrington.

Secretary and Treasurer — J. F. Wilson.

The following question was found in the question box : "What do you
consider the maximum resistance per square foot for ordinary clay soils such
as are found in the vicinity of Cincinnati, when designing foundations for
bridges and buildings? Why?"

This was discussed at some length, it being the general opinion that
while the soils at different localities would sustain different weights, one
to two tons was about right, although in cases more than that had been al-
lowed.

Upon the newly-elected President taking the chair the retiring Presi-
dent read the paper for the evening, as has been the custom, taking for his
topic the question of parks for Cincinnati, which he treated in a very able
manner.

On motion, the Club adjourned after extending to the retiring President
a vote of thanks for his paper, and for the interest and work in behalf of the
Club during the past year.

J. F. Wilson, Secretary.

Louisiana Engineering Society.

New Orleans, January 12, 1901. — The annual meeting of the Louisiana
Engineering Society was called to order this date at 8 o'clock p.m. by Presi-
dent Malochee; twenty-five members and four guests being present.

The minutes of the meeting, held December 10, and the adjourned meet-
ing, held December 17, were read and approved. Also, the minutes of the
Board of Directors' meetings held on December 29, January 5 and January
15, respectively, were read for the information of the members present.

The annual report of the Board of Direction transmitting the reports of
the Secretary, Treasurer and the three standing committers was read and ap-
proved.

A communication from Mr. John P. Coffin, Vice-President of the South-
ern Industrial Association, was read, which invited the Louisiana Engineering
Society to join the association as a corporation. This was indorsed by the
Board of Direction with the recommendation that the Society join said In-

PROCEEDINGS. 9

dustrial Association. The communication was received, and it was decided
by vote that the Society would join, and the Secretary was instructed to issue
warrant for $10, being the amount required for the annual dues.

The ballots for officers of the Society for the year 1901 were opened;
Messrs. Duval, Wright and Lombard being appointed by the President as
tellers. After a short recess, during which the votes were being counted, the
Chair announced that fifty-one votes were cast, and the following gentlemen
were elected to the several offices :

President— F. M. Kerr.

Vice-President — J. F. Coleman. -

Secretary — John F. Richardson.

Treasurer — Walter H. Hoffman.

Director — Alfred Raymond.

Member Board of Administrators of the Association of Engineering So-
cieties— H. J. Malochee.

An able and eloquent address was then delivered by Mr. H. J. Malochee,
the retiring President. His subject was a review of the important office
the modern engineer is performing in the economy of the world, and the
duties and the importance of the position occupied by the engineering societies
as factors in keeping up and raising the code of professional ethics among
engineers.

A vote of hearty thanks for the preparation of his masterly paper and for
the conscientious and successful manner in which he and his brother officers
had conducted the affairs of the Society during the past year was given to Mr.
Malochee.

Mr. F. M. Kerr, the new President, was installed in the chair, and made a
brief speech of acceptance.

It was announced that the next regular meeting would be held on Mon-
day, February 11.

The meeting adjourned at 10.05 p-M-

Gervais Lombard, Secretary.

[6]

As

SOCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Vol. XXVI. FEBRUARY, 1901. No. 2.

PROCEEDINGS.

Engineers' Club of St. Louis.

520TH Meeting, February 6, 1901. — Held at 1600 Lucas Place, 8.30
p.m.; President Spencer presiding. Thirty members and fourteen visitors
were present.

Minutes of the 519th meeting were read and approved.

Minutes of the 314th meeting of the Executive Committee were read.

The applications- for membership of Messrs. W. H. Henby and Truman
M. Post were read.

President Spencer presented a draft of an "Act prohibiting the dis-
charge of dense black smoke from any premises within the limits of all
cities of the State of Missouri having a population of three hundred thousand
inhabitants." This, together with a memorial to the General Assembly, was
offered by the Chairman of the Committee on Smoke Prevention, with the
suggestion that the members of the Club sign the same.

Upon discussion, it developed that Mr. Moore, Chairman of the Smoke
Prevention Committee, preferred to have the memorial signed in the
name of the Club by its officers. Upon motion made and duly seconded, it
was ordered that the President sign and the Secretary attest the memorial.

Mr. D. W. Roper, who had taken up matter of repairing lantern, re-
ported that same had been repaired and the lantern was in shape to ex-
hibit, although it was far from perfect.

Motion made and carried, the Chairman appointed committee of three
to report to the Club on lantern, stating what steps must be taken to
secure a lantern which will give the best results. The committee ap-
pointed was Mr. Flad, Chairman, Mr. Roper and Mr. Maltby. This com-
mittee was also ordered to look up the matter of obtaining a good reading
lamp for service in the meeting room.

The subject for the evening was an informal address by Mr. Arthur
Thacher, president of the Central Lead Company and the Renault Lead
Company, on "Lead Mines in Missouri." The speaker discussed, in a
very interesting manner, but in a general way only, the geological features
of the three lead districts of this State, taking up separately the Southwest

12 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Missouri district, the Central Missouri district and the Southeast Missouri
district.

Particular attention was given to the mines of the latter district, as
they produce by far the greater proportion of the lead of the State. The
speaker explained, in a brief but clear and interesting manner, the various
steps followed in the production of lead in this district, beginning with
prospecting for the mineral and following the movement of the rock in
its course through the mill, whose product is the concentrate ; then
following the concentrate through the roasters and smelters, ending with
the purified pigs of lead. A number of interesting views of mining prop-
erties and specimens of ore-bearing rock were shown. The speaker ex-
tended a very cordial invitation to all members to visit the mines of the
Central Lead Company in order to better acquaint themselves with the
nature of the very valuable and extensive lead deposits in this district.

Discussion was participated in by Mr. C. G. Reel and others.

The Chair announced as the subject of the paper for the next meeting,.
February 20, "A Historical Description of the Bridges over the Missis-
sippi," illustrated by lantern slides, by Mr. F. B. Maltby.

It was decided that this meeting be an open one, and that members
be requested to bring their friends, and make special effort to have a large
attendance of ladies.

Adjourned to an adjoining room, where lunch was served.

W. G. Brenneke, Secretary.

52 1 st Meeting, St. Louis, February 20, 1901. — Held at 1600 Lucas
Place, 8.15 p.m.; President Spencer presiding.

Thirty-six members and eighteen visitors, including ladies, were present.

As the minutes of the 520th meeting had been printed on the announce-
ment circular, and mailed to each member of the Club, it was moved and
seconded that the reading of these minutes be dispensed with, and that they
stand approved as printed.

The minutes of the 315th meeting of the Executive Committee were read.

The application for membership of Mr. Louis Bendit was read and re-
ferred to the Executive Committee.

President Spencer announced that as there had been no meeting of the
Executive Committee this week, no action had been taken on the applica-
tions for membership of Messrs. W. H. Henby and T. M. Post, but their ap-
plications would be considered at the next meeting.

Mr. Flad, Chairman of the Committee on Lantern, reported that the
committee had selected a new lantern on trial and that the lantern selected
would be used in illustrating the paper of the evening. Its cost is between.
$17 and $18, and the cost of operating it is about 11 cents an hour. A new
reading lamp was also provided.

The subject of the evening was a paper by Mr. F. B. Maltby, entitled "A
Historical Description of the Bridges over the Mississippi River." Taking
the bridges in the order of their occurrence, from the falls of Saint Anthony
down the river, the speaker gave a description of each bridge, stating the
authority for building, the general dimensions of all spans and approaches,
the types of trusses, the classes of material in piers and superstructures and
such other prominent points as were worthy of mention. The speaker made
no attempt to go into engineering details, but confined his paper to a brief

PROCEEDINGS. 13

statement of facts of general information. The paper was completely illus-
trated by lantern slides, views of nearly every bridge on the river being
shown.

As there was no discussion after the completion of the paper, adjourn-
ment was made to the library rooms, where the Entertainment Committee
had made special arrangements to serve a light lunch.

E. B. Fay, Secretary pro tern.

Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

January 23, 1901. — A regular meeting of the Boston Society of Civil
Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple, Boston, at 7.50
o'clock p.m.; President Alexis H. French in the chair; one hundred and
forty-two members and visitors present, including ladies.

On motion of Mr. Howland, the reading of the record of the last meet-
ing was postponed until the next meeting.

On motion of Mr. F. O. Whitney, it was voted that the Chairman be re-
quested to appoint a committee of three to report to the meeting the names
of five members to serve as committee to nominate officers. The Chairman
appointed Messrs. F. O. Whitney, H. D. Woods and C. T. Main as the com-
mittee. Later in the meeting this committee reported, as a Nominating Com-
mittee, Messrs. F. W. Hodgdon, Dwight Porter, Henry Manley, R. S. Hale
and C. R. Cutter, and they were chosen by the Society as its committee to
nominate officers for the ensuing year.

On motion of Mr. Sherman, the thanks of the Society were voted to the
Derby Desk Company for courtesies shown the members on the occasion of
the visit to its manufactory this afternoon.

On motion, Mr. Henry Manley was appointed a committee to make ar-
rangements for the annual dinner, and it was voted to make the usual ap-
propriation for the incidental expense of the same.

Mr. Manley called attention to the death of Queen Victoria, which
occurred since our last meeting, and told of the very gracious manner in
which she received the American engineers on the occasion of their visit to
Windsor Castle last June. In concluding he offered the following resolution :

Resolved, That this meeting desires to give expression to its feelings of
sorrow and its sense of loss in the recent death of Queen Victoria ; that it de-
sires to do honor to her memory, remembering that amidst the multitude of
events of the first importance in the world's history which have transpired
during her long reign, she has always been quick to acknowledge the ser-
vices of modern engineering, and to honor its representatives.

The resolution was adopted by a unanimous vote.

The literary exercises consisted of an entirely informal, but very inter-
esting and instructive, talk by Dr. Desmond FitzGerald, describing the
palaces on the Grand Canal in Venice. The talk was very fully illustrated
by lantern views.

Adjourned. S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.

February 20, 1901. — A regular meeting of the Boston Society of Civil
Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple, Boston, at 7.50
o'clock p.m.; Vice-President F. W. Hodgdon in the chair; seventy-six mem-
bers and visitors present.

14 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The records of the December and January meetings were read and ap-
proved.

Mr. Fred. Rufus Davis was elected a member of the Society.

On motion of Mr. Brooks, the thanks of the Society were voted to the
United States Steel Company for courtesies extended this afternoon to the
members of the Society who visited its works at West Everett.

Mr. Caleb Mills Saville read the paper of the evening, entitled, "Sub-
merged Pipe Crossings on the Metropolitan Water Works." The paper was
illustrated by numerous lantern views of the work. At the conclusion of the
short discussion which followed the reading of the paper, Mr. Dexter Brackett
had thrown on the screen a number of views of some of the recent work of
the Metropolitan Water Board.

Adjourned. S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.

Engineers' Club of Cincinnati.

120TH Regular Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio, January 17, 1901. — Dinner
was served at 6.30 p.m.

The regular meeting was called to order at 8 p.m. ; with Vice-President
Bogen in the chair.

There were twenty-one members present: Messrs. Bert. L. Baldwin,
Ward Baldwin, Bogen, Carlisle, Carpenter, Coney, Elzner, Fritsch, Gordon,
Gray, Hauck, Hobart, Innes, Kittredge, Nicholson, Osborn, Punshon, Read,
Warrington, Rabbe and Wilson.

There was also present, by invitation, M. Philippe Bauna-Varilla, the
French engineer, who was for several years connected with the construction
of the Panama Canal, and who came to this city on invitation of the Com-
mercial Club, before which organization he appeared last evening and spoke
on the subject of the various proposed routes for an isthmian water con-
nection between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

The regular business was, on motion, waived, and the reading of the
paper for the evening, by Mr. A. L. Hauck, on the subject "Economies and
Economical Appliances Used in the Manufacture of Coal Gas," proceeded
with, after which M. Bauna-Varilla favored the Club with a very interesting
talk on the relative merits, advantages and feasibility of the Panama and
Nicaragua routes for a ship canal, his comparison showing the former to be
the better.

A vote of thanks was tendered him for his interesting and timely lecture,

and also to Mr. Hauck for his paper.

On motion, the Club adjourned.

J. F. Wilson, Secretary.

Civil Engineers' Society of St. Paul.

Regular Monthly Meeting, February 4, 1901. — Deferred election
of officers for ensuing year resulted in the election of:
President — A. O. Powell, Asst. Eng. U. S.
Vice-President — A. W. Munster, Bridge Eng. C. G. W. Ry.
Secretary — G. S. Edmondstone, City Bridge Engineer.
Treasurer — A. H. Hogeland, Res. Eng. G. N. Ry.

PROCEEDINGS. 15

Librarian — C. A. Winslow, City Eng.'s office, St. Paul.

Representative on Board of Managers for Association of Engineering
Societies — Geo. L. Wilson, Asst. City Eng., St. Paul.

Percy E. Barber and Otto Luserke were elected members. The
Secretary's report was read and placed on file. The Treasurer's report
showed the Society to be free from debt, and a comfortable figure upon
the credit side of ledger.

Constitution and By-laws amended changing meeting night from first
to second Monday in each and every month.

Mr. H. J. Gillie, Superintendent Edison Electric Light Company, de-
scribed terminal station within the limits of the city of St. Paul of the electric
current generated of power house at St. Croix River Power Company at
dam upon Apple River. Afterward members personally inspected the
terminal station. Adjourned.

G. S. Edmondstone, Secretary.

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Regular Meeting, February i, 1901. — Called to order at 8.30 p.m. by
President Marx.

The reading of the minutes dispensed with by order of the Chair.

Mr. Charles Burckhalter addressed the Society on the subject of
photographing the solar corona by the aid of a rotating comma-shaped
disk attached to a slide, invented by the lecturer, by which certain unequal
exposures are obtained to suit the degree of brightness of the field to be
photographed. Mr. Burckhalter exhibited, by means of lantern slides, a
number of beautiful results of his observations of the last solar eclipse
at Siloam, Ga., in May, 1900, and explained at length the mechanism that
had made it possible to achieve these remarkable results in astronomical
photography.

A vote of thanks was passed for the author, expressing the apprecia-
tion of the Society. Adjourned.

Otto von Geldern, Secretary.

Engineers' Society of Western New York.

Regular Meeting, February 5, 1901. — Meeting called to order at
8 p.m.; the President being in the chair. The following members present:
Messrs. Haven, Diehl, Tutton, Knapp, Knighton, Speyer, Norton, C. M.
Morse, Geo. F. Morse, Sikes, Weston, Ricker, Kielland, Buttolph and Bab-
cock.

It was voted that the minutes of the last regular meeting be approved
as printed.

The Executive Board reported that they had considered the matter of
rent. At the meeting just after the annual meeting a Committee on
Rooms was appointed to consider the matter of rooms, and they have
reported that they think we had better stay where we are. Since then notice
has been received that after the first of May the rent of the room in Ellicott
Square will be increased 15 per cent. Mr. Norton, Vice-President, was ap-
pointed a committee of one to further consider the matter, in order to find out
what we had better do after the first of next May.

16 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The Executive Board also reported that the Society had received
applications from the following gentlemen: Edward Dennison Hooker
and Stanley W. Hayes as members, and Leslie J. Bennett and Warren
Rodney as associates. The applications were taken up separately, and
on motion it was voted that they be referred to letter ballot.

The Executive Board also reported that the Society had elected the
following gentlemen: Horace Corey Booz and David Augustus Decrow
as members, James Franklin and Mathew S. Gardiner as juniors and
Albert W. Caines, Samuel J. Dark and William Franklin, Jr., as associates.

The President. — The Executive Board sent a marked copy of the
printed minutes to the gentlemen who were appointed as committees to
read papers before the Society, and to several other gentlemen, and have
receive replies as follows:

From Mr. S. W. Hayes, who was requested to read a paper on "The
Proper Construction of Docks," asking to be relieved until after the com-
ing summer.

From Mr. C. D. Watson, who said, on account of assignment to work
in the South, he would be unable to read a paper at present.

From Mr. David Cuthbertson, who stated that he would be pleased
to read a paper on "The Workings of the Weather Bureau" at the
meeting of the Society in March.

From Mr. C. R. Neher, who said he would read a paper on "Concrete
Construction" at the March meeting.

The Librarian made a brief report.

Mr. Ricker, who had been appointed by the President as a committee
of one on Docks, addressed the Society as follows:

Mr. President and Gentlemen. — All of you will perhaps remember
the collapse of the two ore docks, in Buffalo, — one at the Union Furnaces,
the other belonging to the West Shore Railroad Company. I am now
rebuilding the Furnace Company's dock, and will tell you what I am
doing, but before outlining the plan, for the information of those who are
not familiar with the conditions, will explain the failure as far as I can.
At the foot of Hamburg street, on the east bank of the river, are located
the furnaces of the Union Furnace Company, a combination of the three
old companies. Here was built a pile and timber dock of the ordinary type
of construction, and back of this dock was stored a great many tons of
ore. A Brown hoist was erected on the dock, and the ore carried back
on a traveler and dropped, but no part resting on the timber structure
itself. Immediately back of the dock was a car track. The piles for a
distance of 50 feet back were pretty staunchly anchored with 2-inch
tie rods, the rods being looped over a rail, which was coupled up with
fish plates in front of the inner row of piles, so that the dock was pretty
well tied in. The penetration of the piles was from 4 to 5 feet only, and
this fact, in addition to the nature of the soil itself, was the cause of the
dock failing. Of course, in a pile and timber dock there is little resist-
ing power to lateral outthrust, and an overload of ore simply pushed
the whole dock out. After its failure there was but little left of the dock,
as the whole structure moved out into the river from 20 to 35 feet. The
tie rods being fastened in near the top the footing gave way before the
rods broke. Some rods snapped off, in other cases pulled through the
anchor bolts, and many piles were broken off. The rock underlying
is practically level, there being a slight dip to the east, so that what in-

PROCEEDINGS. 17

clination there was was against the thrust of the ore. The rock is per-
fectly smooth and there was nothing to hold the feet of the piles, which
slipped along as naturally as could be, and the ore, of course, went to the
bottom. It was afterward dredged out with a clam shell dredge and
taken back and stored in the yard.

With a dredge the old piles were drawn out and the earth dredged
back 30 feet wide down to the rock. We are putting in cribs of 12 x
12 hemlock that are 26 feet wide with two bays of 13 feet each, and are
loaded with stone. The cribs reach to a height of about 22 feet. On
the top and front of these cribs it is proposed to form a concrete facing
of truncated triangular form, 8 feet on the bottom and about 4 feet on
top, with the slope on the inner side. The rock filling will be brought
up over the entire width of the crib to the top of the concrete. The
space made by dredging the earth at the natural slope back of the cribs
will be packed full of slag, so that a large part of the treacherous earth
back of the dock will be replaced by this slag filling, and so much of
the thrust as was due to the earth will be taken away by using this more
substantial material for back filling. The new dock will be 550 feet long.
That portion of the unharmed pile dock immediately south of the cribs
will be allowed to remain, but will not be used for the storage of ore.

The President. — Is this the first dock or wharf that has been built
in Buffalo with a concrete face?

Mr. Ricker. — So far as I know, it is. In regard to facing the con-
crete, we will protect this from bruising by oak timber waling strips and
a heavy cap of same material.

Mr. Diehl. — The underlying rock is level?

Mr. Ricker. — Almost level. At the south end of the dock the water
is 24 feet deep, at the north end it is probably not over 18 feet, — possibly
19 feet.

Mr. Diehl. — How was the width of the crib determined — what
formula did you use?

Mr. Ricker. — The usual formulas for retaining walls. My sole ob-
ject was, of course, to get enough stone in the cribs to resist the thrust
of the ore piles that would be imposed on the earth immediately back
of the dock. And as a further precaution against possible movement
of the cribs we shall bore into the rock and drop car axles into these
holes vertically, each hole being 3 feet deep, the axles 6 feet long.

Mr. Kielland. — How deep is the water in front of the cribs?

Mr. Ricker. — Eighteen feet.

Mr. Sikes. — Was there any floor under the ore piles?

Mr. Ricker. — Yes. Plank laid on sleepers on the ground. When
we considered the cost of a pile and timber dock, we found that the piles
must be 5 feet centers, and the caps would have to be 30 inches deep, and
a corresponding floor system.

Mr. Norton.— I am somewhat acquainted with the geology of that
section, having taken soundings for the rock dredging which the city has
done from Ohio to Hamburg streets recently. The rock is worn smooth
by glacial action, showing scratches, being mainly very smooth. Imme-
diately above this is a layer of hard pan, containing much of the bed
rock in various sized fragments. I believe it to consist largely of the
broken and pulverized underlying rock. It was found difficult to drive
steel rods through a few feet of this to determine the depth of the rock.

18 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

I should like to ask Mr. Ricker if he removes this hard pan with a dredge
so as to place the cribs on the rock? And, also, if he thinks that the piles
of the dock which failed were driven into this hard pan or through it?
I hardly think it possible to drive an unshod pile through it.

Mr. Ricker. — I think it extremely doubtful if the original piles pene-
trated this hard pan, as some were found broken at the point. We were
able to remove the hard pan with dredges.

Mr. Norton. — I believe this formation underlies most of the Buffalo
River Valley. It is found near its mouth, and also in Cheektowaga. In
1890 I sounded the rock in the river at the Watson elevator. Vessels
grounded on what appeared to be rock bottom. A few drivings showed
rock to be from 1 to 3 feet below bottom. Borings showed this layer of
hard pan which the smaller dredges then in use were unable to strip off.
Mr. Stewart, who is building the sub-structure for the D. L. and W. R. R.
swing bridge on Water street over the Evans Slip, told me he expected
to found the concrete abutments on rock. I told him it was doubtful if
the dredge he had would remove the hard pan. He has since told me that
it was not removed, but the concrete laid on top of the two feet of hard
pan overlying the rock. I do not know whether they found it impossible
to do so, or considered it as good as the concrete with which it would
be replaced. At the high points of the bed rock the hard pan is often
missing. In making some sketch plans for excursion docks, when the
matter was recently under discussion, I provided for a construction
quite similar to that used by Mr. Ricker at the furnace dock.

The President. — Mr. Speyer, you found the same formation at Clin-
ton street, did you not?

Mr. Speyer. — Yes, sir. Also at Smith-Seneca streets. There was
about 3 feet of this hard pan on top of the rock.

The President. — On which the retaining walls now rest?

Mr. Speyer. — Yes, sir.

Mr. Sikes. — The same formation was found under the U. S. Break-
water.

Mr. Kielland. — When we built the coal trestle at Cheektowaga for
the Lehigh Valley Railroad we stripped about an acre of the rock, which
showed the same glacial markings, and the boulders which must have
made the markings on the rock. The rock was polished in many places,
and can be seen there to-day. We found the same formation that you
find everywhere else. In some places we found the hard pan overlying
the rock, in other places the rock was clean. The hard pan was from
3 to 4 feet thick, and filled with these boulders.

Mr. Tutton. — I would like to extend the remarks, which may be of
interest to some of the members. I built a dock south of the Union Iron
Works. We drove test piles from 80 to 90 feet before we brought up on
the rock. That is, we think we brought up on the rock, we are not
positive. There seemed to be an estuary running through South Buffalo,
crossing the city line about where the Abbott road crosses. There
seemed to be gravel at about 25 to 30 feet. This we passed through and
drove our piles 20 or 30 feet farther; when we passed through this our
piles dropped through. This dock was designed to carry from 200 to 400
pounds per square foot, of ordinary construction. As near as I can re-
member the dock was 40 feet wide on top. The piles, I think, were 7l/i
feet centers. The dock gave way in a different manner than the one

PROCEEDINGS. ig

being replaced by Mr. Ricker. The ore sank down in the earth and the
dock was lifted in the air 10 or 12 feet. This dock was replaced by Mr.
Kielland, I having left the road in the meanwhile.

At the time the canals were cut across the Tifft farm the foremen of
the dredges ran a race to see which could take out the most material,
and I think they cut through this layer of hard pan, and this probably
accounts for the failure of this dock.

Mr. Kielland. — I was Division Engineer of the Lehigh when this
dock failed. A Brown hoist was constructed on the dock, resting on a
pile foundation. The ore was piled from 25 to 30 feet high, the toe of the
pile being from 50 to 60 feet from the front of the dock. Very suddenly
the pile of ore sank and the dock rose in the air. I came out shortly
after the accident. We took soundings in front of the dock and com-
menced immediately to reconstruct it. We cut off the piles. The Brown
hoist was in good shape, only the joints were sprung. We cut off the
piles which had been driven out of shape and drove other ones. We got
the ore out and placed it farther back. It cost but little to repair the dock,
and it is in use to-day.

Mr. Geo. F. Morse, Asst. Engineer L. V. R. R., said that the com-
pany had instructed him to make an investigation as to the proper load,
etc. He had investigated the matter and had recommended to keep the
toe of ore piles 70 (seventy) feet away from front of dock, to dump the
ore in conical piles and not in ridges or to limit the load not to exceed
more than 1500 to 2000 pounds per square foot of surface.

Mr. Ricker. — Do you suppose the ore sank down to this layer of hard
pan and rested on it?

Mr. Kielland. — I think it did. It rested in a pocket. The Lehigh
has the biggest dock in Buffalo, and they have not done anything espe-
cial to construct a dock to care for this ore. The only precaution is to
keep ore piles far enough back from front of dock.

Mr. Ricker. — All these failures seem to indicate that pile docks in
this soil will fail with a load of about lYz tons to the foot, about the load
which has produced the failure in every case.

Mr. Sikes. — This hard pan shows at the Ridge road. There the rock
is only about 25 feet below the surface, at Tifft street 70 to 80 feet. This
hard pan is about 18 feet from the surface at the city line and 31 feet at
Tifft street.

Mr. Tutton. — They find the same thing at the steel plant, and at
Smokes Creek.

aIr. Kielland. — I want to tell another thing in regard to docks on
the Tifft farm. The Lackawanna when they built their dock only drove
their piles to this sand or hard pan. Just south of the Buffalo Creek
bridge the hard pan is about 30 to 35 below water. This dock has been
loaded very heavily as a rail and iron dock. It has kept its general eleva-
tion well.

The President thanked Mr. Ricker in behalf of the Society for his very
interesting talk by means of which the Society has had a most instructive
session.

The matter of sending out invitations to the different Societies in
North and South America was taken up, and on motion of Mr. Ricker,
seconded by Mr. Knapp, it was unanimously voted that the subject matter
be referred to the Executive Board with power.

Meeting adjourned at 11 p.m. G. C. Diehl, Secretary.

MEMBERS ARE ADVISED . .
THAT THEY CAN OBTAIN

Reprints or Extra Copies of their Papers

AT THE FOLLOWING RATES:

4 pages or less 5 to 8 pages 9 to 16 pages 17 to 24 pages

100 Copies . . $2.25 $4.00 $5.50 $9.25

250 " . . 2.75 5.00 6.50 11.25

500 " . 3.50 6.50 8.75 15.00

1000 " . . 4.50 8.75 12.50 21.00

Covers
extra.

$2.25
2.75
3.50
4.50

An extra charge will be made for printing and in-
serting such illustrations as are not printed on the same
pages as the text, and for enameled paper, when this is
used, but it is of course impossible to name rates for
this in advance.

When reprints are wanted, notice of the fact, stat-
ing how many are desired and whether they are to be
furnished with covers, should accompany the paper when
it is sent to the Secretary of the Association.

If the paper has been discussed, please state whether
it is desired that the reprint shall contain the discussion.

JOHN C. TRAUTWINE, Jr., Secretary,

257 SOUTH FOURTH STREET,
PHILADELPHIA.

Ass

OCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Vol. XXVI. MARCH, 1901. No. 3.

PROCEEDINGS.

Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Meeting Held in
Butte, Montana, January IO to 12, 1901.

The fourteenth annual meeting of the Montana Society of Engineers was
held in Butte, Mont., from. January 10 to 12, 1001. On the evening of the
10th the Society held a "smoker" in their headquarters, Rooms 16 and 17,
Tuttle Building. Light refreshments were served and the evening was
spent in a very enjoyable social gathering.

January 11 was devoted to visiting points of engineering interest in and
about Butte. In the morning the party met at the Society headquarters, and
made a trip over the Butte Street Railway to Walkerville; arriving at the
new reservoir of the Butte City Water Company, they were escorted by the
chief engineer, Mr. Eugene Carroll. They then paid a visit to the Mon-
tana State School of Mines, where they were welcomed by Prof. N. R.
Leonard, and shown the many points of interest in the new institution. In
the afternoon the members separated into smaller parties and visited the
various mines and smelters, some going underground to view the riches of
mother earth, some to the smelters to study the various methods of treating
ore, and others to inspect the splendid machinery of the various hoisting
plants used at the different mines, points of interest in which Butte can
equal if not excel any city in the world.

At 8.30 p.m. Mr. H. V. Winchell, chief geologist for the Anaconda Cop-
per Mining Company, delivered a very interesting lecture, illustrated with
stereopticon views, on "The Iron Mines of Minnesota," in the Council
Chamber of the City Hall.

The annual business meeting was held at the Council Chamber, City Hall,
Butte. Mont., January 12, 1901.

The meeting was called to order at 10 o'clock a.m. by the President,
Mr. Blackford, in the chair.

The Secretary called the roll of members present, as follows :

Geo. T. Wickes, F. L. Sizer, R. R. Vail, Albert Koberle, W. J. Flood,
Eugene Carroll, B. D. Whitten, S. H. Crookes, W. H. Williams, J. H.

22 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Harper, R. A. McArthur, Carlisle Mason, C. W. Goodale, G. W. Tower, Jr.,
C. D. Vail, E. C. Kinney, Wm. Zaschke, A. W. Catlin, C. H. Bowman, C. H.
Moore, C. W. Paine, N. R. Leonard, Eugene Sickles, August Christian and
C. V. Page.

The Secretary read the minutes of the meeting held December 8, 1900.

The minutes were approved as read.

The Secretary presented applications for membership as follows :

Nathan R. Leonard, President of the Montana State School of Mines.

Reno H. Sales, assistant engineer for the Boston and Montana Company,
at Butte.

Charles Warner Paine, engineer in charge of the new works for Butte
City Water Company.

Sam. Edward Davis, head surveyor for the Boston and Montana Com-
pany, Butte.

Rudolph Joseph Decker, mechanical engineer of the Montana Ore Pur-
chasing Company, Butte.

William White, architect, Butte.

Edgar James Strasburger, civil engineer, Butte.

Frederick John Rowlands, salesman of mining machinery, Butte.

Stephen Pearl Wright, proprietor of the Western Mining Supply Com-
pany, Butte.

Charles John Adami, mining engineer for the Butte and Boston Mining
Consolidated Company.

On motion of Mr. Sizer the applications were referred to the Trustees.

The Secretary presented further applications as follows, which were
similarly referred :

Burt Adams Tower, mining engineer with the Montana Ore Purchasing
Company, Butte.

Alfred Frank, mining engineer with the Montana Ore Purchasing Com-
pany, Butte.

Richard Austin Lacey, engineer with the Montana Ore Purchasing Com-
pany, Butte.

Messrs. Whitten and Koberle and Professor Williams were appointed
tellers to canvass ballots for officers.

The Secretary read his report, as follows, which, upon motion, was or-
dered filed :

REPORT OF SECRETARY AND LIBRARIAN FOR THE YEAR
ENDING JANUARY 12, 1901.

Butte, Mont., January 12, 1901.
To the President and Members Montana Society of Engineers.

Gentlemen : — I beg leave to submit the following as my report for the
year ending January 12, 1901 :

Financial Statement,
receipts.

Cash in Treasury, January 13, 1900 $355.11

Dues collected 821.50

From sale of old furniture 30.00

Total $1,206.61

PROCEEDINGS. 23

DISBURSEMENTS.

To expense 13th annual meeting $97-05

To Association of Engineering Societies 222.95

To rent of headquarters and janitor's services 261.00

To furnishing of headquarters 256.88

To printing and stationery, including 250 copies Constitution, By-
Laws, etc 148.75

To Secretary's salary 100.00

To stamps, envelopes, express charges, telegraphing, hauling, P. O.
box and sundries, as shown in vouchers attached to Secretary's

bills 46.59

Total $1,133.22

Leaving a balance on hand January 12, 1901 73-39

$1,206.61
All the bills against the Society have been paid up to date excepting the
bill for printing the proceedings of the thirteenth annual meeting, which has
been held pending correction.

MEMBERSHIP.

The following table shows the membership of the Society of all grades
at the beginning and end of fiscal year :

Jan. 13, 1000. Jan. 12, 1901.

Honorary members 4 4

Active members 117 no

Associate members '. 21 28

During the year one member resigned, fourteen members were dropped
for non-payment of dues and not conforming to requirements of membership,
and seven members, through removal from the State, were removed from
active to associate list. Sixteen new members were elected during the year.

The Society lost one member by death during the year, the same being
Mr. J. S. B. Hollinshead, of Butte, whose sudden death took place at his
home on July 19, 1900.

Four papers were read and two discussions were had at the various
meetings during the year. Two hundred and fifty copies of the Constitution
and By-Laws, containing in addition the list of officers and members, were
published, and distributed to the members of the Society. Two hundred
and fifty copies of the proceedings of the thirteenth annual meeting were
published. The same included also a synopsis of the meetings of the year
1899, and all the papers read before the Society during that year, and the list
of officers and members.

Library. The books of the Society have been shelved in new Werneke
bookcases, but no provision has yet been made for properly taking care of
the various smaller pamphlets and transactions of various Engineering
Societies.

The following magazines are regularly received : Engineering and
Mining Journal, Engineering Record, Construction Nezus, Raihuay Age,
Indian Engineering, Railway and Engineering Review, Irrigation Age,
Modern Machinery, Railway Master Mechanic, Journal of the Western So-
ciety of Engineers and the Journal of the Association of Engineering
Societies.

24 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Many smaller books, pamphlets and transactions of various Societies have
been received and proper acknowledgment made.
Respectfully submitted,

R. A. McArthur, Secretary.

A regular meeting of the Montana Society of Engineers was held March
9 in their headquarters, Rooms 16 and 17, Tuttle Building, Butte, Mont., with
nineteen members and two visitors present ; Vice-President August Christian
in the chair.

Applications of Ai Arthur Abbott and Albert James Flood were read and
accepted for balloting. Messrs. Adami and Tower were appointed tellers to
canvass ballots for membership, and reported Messrs. Richard Austin Lacy,
Steven P. Wright and Fred. T. Greene elected as members.

Report of Annual Meeting Committee was read and accepted and com-
mittee discharged.

The committee appointed to revise the Constitution to create a junior
membership submitted the following report:

PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION.
ARTICLE II.

Section i. The membership of this Society shall be designated as Active
Members, Associate Members, Corresponding Members, Junior Members and
Honorary Members.

Sec. 2. An active member shall be a civil, mechanical, mining, electrical
or other professional engineer; an architect, geologist, metallurgist or analyt-
ical chemist. He shall have been in active practice of his professional work
for at least four years, or in responsible charge of professional work for at
least two years, and shall be qualified to design and direct engineering work,
or capable of carrying on the work of his profession. Credits from a school
of recognized reputation in the above profession shall be considered as equiva-
lent to one-half the time they represent as active practice. The performance
of the duties of a teacher in schools of high grade in the above professions
shall be accepted as equivalent to an equal number of years of responsible
charge of professional work.

Sec. 3. An associate member shall be a person who by scientific acquire-
ments or practical experience has attained a position in his special pursuit
qualifying him to co-operate with engineers in the advance of engineering
knowledge or practice.

Sec. 4. A corresponding member must have his residence outside of the
State of Montana, and must be competent to contribute valuable information
on engineering questions. This grade will also include members of the So-
ciety who have removed from the State and wish to temporarily withdraw
from active participation in the affairs of the Society.

Sec. 5. A junior member shall have had active practice in his branch of
engineering for at least two years, or the equivalent of the same as stated in
Section 2 of this Article. A junior member shall be transferred to active
membership as soon as he becomes eligible therefor.

Sec. 6. An honorary member shall be a person of acknowledeged emi-
nence in one of the professions enumerated in Section 2 of this Article.

Sec. 7. Active members, associate members and junior members shall
be designated at resident and non-resident members. Those living within
thirty miles of the court house in Butte shall be classed as resident members.

Sec. 8. Any member of the Society who removes from the State and
wishes to temporarily withdraw from active participation in the affairs of the
Society may do so on filing with the Secretary a written declaration of his
intentions and paying to the Secretary all accumulated fees or other indebted-

PROCEEDINGS. 25

ness due the Society. He will then be classed as a corresponding member,
and will be subject to no dues or assessments. He may return to membership
by giving written notice to the Secretary and paying to him all assessments
and dues for the current year.

Sec. 9. Any member of any other Society in the Association of Engi-
neering Societies, in good standing, may become a member of this Society,
when duly elected as described in Article IV of the By-Laws, without paying
the initiation fee, and with a release from the annual dues for such period,
not over one year, as he may show by certificate he has paid in advance in the
Society from which he comes.

ARTICLE IV.

Section" i. Active members alone shall have the privilege of voting and
holding office. Associate members are entitled to vote, but are not eligible to
hold office.

Substitute in Articles III, IV and V of the Constitution the words
"Active and Associate Member" in place of "Member" where it refers to
voting and "Active Member" where it refers to holding office.

PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO THE BY-LAWS.
ARTICLE IV.

ADMISSION TO THE SOCIETY.

Section i. All candidates for admission to the Society shall make ap-
plication in writing, etc.

Sec. 6. The annual dues of all resident active members and associate
members shall be $8; resident junior members and non-resident active mem-
bers and associate members $6; non-resident junior members $4. Honorary
and corresponding members shall be subject to no dues or assessments. All
dues shall be paid to the Secretary on or before the first regular meeting in
February of each year.

Substitute in the By-Laws the words "Active and Associate Member" in
place of "Member" where it refers to voting and "Active Member" where
it refers to holding office.

A motion was passed requesting the report of the committee be printed
and sent to the members of the Society inviting a written discussion to be
presented at the next regular meeting.

Mr. McArthur presented the following resolutions, which were unani-
mously adopted :

Whereas, A Divine Providence has seen fit to remove from our earthly
associations another member of this Society; be it

Resolved, That in the death of David Walker Hardenbrook we recognize
the loss of a member whose kindly disposition and gentle manner have won
the esteem of his entire acquaintance, and whose quiet and faithful perform-
ance of his engineering duties has commanded the respect and confidence of
all his professional associates.

Resolved, That this sentiment be spread upon the minutes of this meet-
ing, our sympathy be extended to his friends and relatives and a copy of this
action be forwarded to his bereaved family.

A motion was passed requesting Mr McArthur to prepare a biography of
the deceased to be presented at the next regular meeting. Messrs. Moore,
Harper and Weed were appointed on a committee to select a design for a
badge of the Society.

Mr. Walter H. Weed, United States Geographical Survey, entertained
the Society with an interesting talk of the mines recently visited by him in
Mexico. The geological conditions around Chihuahua and Parral, together

26 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

with many interesting features of the country, were described in a very en-
tertaining manner.

Notice. — The attention of the members is especially called to the report
of the Committee on Revision of the Constitution presented above, and any
desirable changes or suggestions should be sent in at once to the Secretary.

This will be presented at the next regular meeting, at which time the
matter will be further considered.

Richard R. Vail, Secretary.

The President. — Gentlemen, you have heard the report of the Secretary.
What is your pleasure?

It was moved and seconded that the report be placed on file, and upon
being put to vote was duly carried.

The President. — The next order of business is the report of the Treas-
urer.

Mr. Harper. — I would say that my report is hardly complete. I am ex-
pecting two or three further items that I intended to- embrace in the report.
Mr. McArthur and myself, however, have checked this morning, and have
reached a practical agreement. There is at the present time $73.39 in the
Treasury, as he states in his report.

The President. — When will you promise us your formal written report,
Mr. Treasurer?

Mr. Harper. — It will be filed some time during the afternoon, probably
by two o'clock.

The Secretary. — If permitted, I will say in that connection, that the items
to which Mr. Harper refers are three orders, which were issued January 8,
and they are now in the hands of Mr. Moulthrop, who is one of the trustees,
and I telephoned him this morning to see if I could get them, and I have
been expecting them here. That is the reason that we could not incorporate
them in that report.

The President. — Gentlemen, you have heard the report of the Treas-
urer. What is your pleasure?

Mr. Goodale. — I move that the Treasurer be given further time to make
his report.

The motion was seconded, and upon being put to vote was declared
carried.

The President. — The Secretary will please read the report of the com-
mittee that canvassed the ballots for the election of officers.

The Secretary. — The report reads as follows :

"Mr. President: — Your committee, appointed to canvass the ballot for
officers for the year 1901, desire to report as follows : There have been forty-
six ballots cast, of which Frank L. Sizer received forty-six for President;
August Christian forty-six for First Vice-President; George T. Wickes forty-
six for Second Vice-President; Richard R. Vail forty-six for Secretary and
Librarian ; Joseph H. Harper forty-six for Treasurer and member of the
Board of Managers of the Association of Engineering Societies, and Bertram
H. Dunshee forty-six for Trustee for three years.

"Respectfully submitted,

"Albert Koberle,
"W. H. Williams,
"B. D. Whitten,

"Committee."

PROCEEDINGS. 27

The President. — Gentlemen, you have heard the report of the committee
who have canvassed the ballots. The report shows that the candidates for
officers were all elected unanimously.

You have elected for President of the Society for the ensuing year one
of the charter members of the Society, an engineer very widely and favorably
known throughout the State and elsewhere, and one who will conduct the
affairs of the Society with dignity and ability.

I will appoint Mr. Kinney and Mr. Tower to escort the newly-elected
President to the chair.

(The committee performed its office.)

I take pleasure in introducing Mr. Frank L. Sizer as President of the
Society. (Applause.)

The newly-elected President took his seat in the President's chair, and
addressed the Society as follows :

The President. — Gentlemen of the Society, it is with mingled feelings of
pain and pleasure that I stand before you to-day, — pleasure because I regard
it an honor to be selected as your President, and pain because I have always
looked upon this office as one belonging to the older men of the Society, and
I realize now, when this honor is thrust upon me, that I can no longer count
myself one of the young men. I admit being a charter member of the So-
ciety, and in that sense an old man, but it seems only a few short years ago
that I labored under the disadvantage of being thought too young to take
charge of any important engineering work. But that is a disability we can
all outgrow, and I feel that the only thing of moment is to know whether a
man can do his work thoroughly well.

I am growing to take more and more pride in the accomplishment of one
piece of work in our beloved profession, and I feel that I shall be thoroughly
satisfied with my life if I can succeed in rearing one monument that will be
lasting. In this respect I feel that the civil engineer and the architect have
the advantage, for it has truly been said of the mining engineer that his
province is to tear down rather than to build up, — in other words, "to tear
the insides out of the earth" seems to be a particular delight of that branch
of the profession to which I have the honor of belonging.

I have always taken great pride in this Society. While I have done
much less than many others to build it up and strenghten it, I have yet tried
to do my part in those years in the past, when, with our good President
Haven, — the only one who ever had the audacity to demand a "third term," —
I assisted in putting hats on chairs to represent a quorum at some of our
monthly meetings. But the Society has outgrown the age of tottling, and
I feel it is thoroughly able to stand alone.

I am very much gratified with the growth of the Society. In four years
we have just doubled our membership, and it seems to me that although our
grand young treasure State has developed wonderfully in this same period,
our Society can say truly that it has more than justified the fondest hopes of
its most sanguine members. It is certainly a gratification to know that in
our membership is now contained nearly all of the most prominent members
of the professions which are eligible to election in the Society throughout
the State, and I feel that there is great need of still further push for the in-
crease of our membership, and gathering in the younger men in the pro-
fession. The province of this Society is broad, the scope of it is large, and
yet the work to be done is still larger ; the opportunities for advancement of

28 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

the members of this Society in every direction are very much greater than
most of us realize. When I look over the list of members I can hardly
justify the choice of your Nominating Committee as regards myself, but
with the assistance of the worthy Vice-Presidents and each and every mem-
ber of the Society, I shall endeavor to merit your approbation in the years to
come. (Applause.)

Mr. Wickes, second Vice-President, addressed the Society as follows :

Gentlemen : — I was not aware that the Vice-President was to be called
upon to take a prominent position in the chair beside the President. I am
very much obliged to you for the honor you have conferred upon me, which
was entirely unexpected. Although I am one of the charter members. I have
not taken very active part, in fact no part at all, in the meetings, but that has
been largely due to the fact that my work has been so out of the way, even
when the Society held its meetings in Helena, and while my family was there
I was away most of the time, and at the times of the meetings it has not
been possible for me to go to them. I have, however, always taken a great
interest in the doings of the Society, and have always been glad to know
that the engineers were combining and would work together. I think that
is a feature, generally, that the engineers have not heretofore pulled together
as much as they should, as much as many other organizations in the pro-
fessions do pull together and support each other; but there is no way in
which they will pull together or bring about that result better than to be in
an organization of this character, and I hope that it will continue to grow
and become stronger; and as our President has said that an effort will be
made to make the Society a larger and a stronger organization. I thank you
for the honor conferred.

Mr. Vail, the newly-elected Secretary, thanked the Society for the honor
conferred upon him by his election, and expressed the hope that he might be
enabled to perform his duties creditably.

Mr. Tower, Chairman of Committee of Arrangements for Annual Meet-
ing, requested that the members of this Society contribute to the treasury of
the committee $3.50 each for the purpose of defraying expenses.

On behalf of Mr. H. W. Turner, Chairman of Committee on Transporta-
tion, Mr. McArthur reported that Mr. Turner had fulfilled the duties im-
posed upon him and had secured rates from all the railway companies con-
cerned.

The meeting then adjourned until 2 p.m.

AFTERNOON SESSION.

The Society was called to order at 2 o'clock p.m. by the President F. L.
Sizer in the chair.

The President. — We finished Order of Business No. 6, with the excep-
tion of some letters which were received by the Society, and I will ask Mr.
McArthur to read those letters.

The Secretary read letters of regret from William Appleton Haven and
E. H. Beckler, Honorary Members of the Society, upon their inability to be
present.

The Secretary was directed by the President to respond to the letters.

The President. — It will be proper at this time to hear the report of the
Treasurer.

The Treasurer, Mr. Harper, submitted his report to the Society.

PROCEEDINGS. 29

MONTANA SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS IN ACCOUNT WITH
JOSEPH H. HARPER, TREASURER.

By amount received from Forrest J. Smith, ex-Treasurer $227.11

" R. A. McArthur, Secretary 851.50

" A. S. Hovey 128.00

$1,206.61
To expenditures (orders Nos. 1 to 35) as per vouchers. . . .$1,133.22
Balance in treasury 73-39

$1,206.61

The Treasurer. — The vouchers referred to are herewith tendered.
They are complete with one exception. The last order, or the last draft that
I sent to Mr. Trautwine, Secretary of the Association, has not yet been re-
turned. I will make it a personal matter and see that that is properly at-
tached when it does arrive.

The Treasurer's report was ordered referred to the Trustees. On mo-
tion of Mr. Carroll, the Secretary was directed to write letters of thanks to
railroad companies and others for courtesies extended to the Society.

On motion of Mr. Wickes, the visiting members expressed their thanks
for the hospitality extended to them by the resident members.

On request of the President, the Secretary read Section 3 of Article II
as follows : "Candidates for admission to the Society, as members, must
liave been engaged for at least five years in some branch of engineering or
architecture, or have been graduated as engineer or a manager of a railroad,
canal or other public work; a geologist, chemist or mathematician; a mana-
ger of a mine or metallurgical works; or one who from his scientific ac-
quirements or practical experience has obtained eminence in his special
pursuit, qualifying him to co-operate with engineers in the advancement of
professional knowledge, but may not himself be practicing as an engineer."

Mr. Goodale urged the advisability of establishing a class of associate
members, and asked for discussion of the subject.

Mr. Blackford called attention to provisions of Section 5, Article II, as
follows :

"Any member of the Society who removes from the State and wishes to
temporarily withdraw from active participation in the affairs of the Society
may do so on filing with the Secretary a written declaration of his intentions
and paying to the Secretary all accumulated fees or other indebtedness due
the Society. He will then be classed as an Associate, and will be subject to
no dues or assessments. He may return to membership by giving written
notice to the Secretary and paying to him all assessments and dues for the
current year."

Then Mr. Harper suggested the title "Junior Members," and on motion
of Mr. C. D. Vail, a committee of three was appointed to propose an amend-
ment to the Constitution regarding the matter of membership, and to pro-
vide for Associate and Junior Memberships.

The Chair appointed Messrs. Goodale, Charles D. Vail and Blackford
as members of the Committee on Revision of the Constitution. On request
of Mr. Blackford, he was excused from service on the committee, and Mr.
McArthur appointed to fill the vacancy.

Mr. Christian, First Vice-President, expressed his thanks for the honor
conferred in his election.

30 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The Secretary read a letter from Mr. Charles H. Repath, giving an ac-
count of the death of Mr. Hollinshead and a short sketch of his life's history.

Mr. Carroll voiced the regret of the Society respecting the death of Mr.
Hollinshead, and dwelt upon the enthusiasm with which he took part in
every movement for the benefit of the Society.

On motion of Mr. Carroll, seconded by Mr. Blackford, the Secretary was
instructed to prepare a memorial of Mr. Hollinshead for publication in the
Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies. The President ap-
pointed Messrs. Moore, Goodale and Repath members of the committee to
prepare this memorial.

On motion of Mr. McArthur, the Secretary was instructed to have 250
copies of the proceedings of this meeting published and distributed to the
members of the Society.

Mr. Carroll urged that the publication of these proceedings be expedited.

Mr. Harper mentioned the annoyance caused by the omission on the part
of the printers to supply the illustrations accompanying his paper on the Big
Hole Dam, in the reprints furnished the Society.

On motion of Mr. Carroll, the motion was amended so as to instruct the
Society to procure from the Secretary of the Association of Engineering So-
cieties a reprint of the proceedings of the annual meeting, including the
papers presented, and the motion as amended was carried.

Mr. F. W. Blackford, retiring President, presented his annual address
and expressed his thanks to the members for the courtesy extended to him
during his term of office.

The President complimented Mr. Blackford upon his instructive and en-
tertaining address.

The Society then adjourned.

The banquet held at the McDermott Hotel commenced at 9 o'clock.
The following members were present : F. W. Blackford, Eugene Carroll,
A. W. Catlin, August Christian, S. H. Crookes, B. H. Dunshee, W. J.
Flood, C. W. Goodale, F. P. Gutelius, J. H. Harper, A. E. Hobart, E. C.
Kenney, Albert Koberle, M. L. Macdonald, Carlisle Mason, R. A. McArthur,
E. R. McNeill, C. V. Page, B. R. Putnam, Eugene Sickles, F. L. Sizer, G. W.
Tower, Jr., H. W. Turner, C. D. Vail, R. R. Vail, B. D. Whitten, F. W. C.
Whyte, G. T. Wickes, W. H. Williams, E. H. Wilson, H. V. Winchell, C. H.
Bowman and Wm. Zaschke. Also the following guests: B. A. Tower, Al-
fred Frank, R. H. Sales, C. J. Adami, S. P. Wright, E. J. Strasburger, R. J.
Decker, C. W. Paine, Harry Gallwey, J. E. Dawson, C. C. Rueger.

Mr. Eugene Carroll acted as toastmaster, and following toasts were re-
plied to :

"The President of the United States," by C. H. Moore.

"The Montana Society of Engineers," by F. L. Sizer.

"The Educational Institutions of Montana," by W. H. Williams.

"The Geologist," by H. V. Winchell.

"The Mining Engineer," by Geo. T. Wickes.

"Our former President, W. A. Haven," by C. W. Goodale.

"The Irrigation Engineer," by E. C. Kenney.

"The Ladies," by Geo. W. Tower, Jr.

"The Civil Engineer in British Columbia," by Fred. Gutelius.

Besides various stories and short talks by Messrs. Koberle, Wright,
Dawson, Christian, Wilson and others.

PROCEEDINGS. 31

Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

Boston, March 20, 1901. — The annual meeting of the Boston Society of
Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple, at 7.35 o'clock
p.m. ; President Alexis H. French in the chair. Ninety-two members and
visitors present.

The record of the last meeting was read and approved.

Messrs. William C. Ogden, John K. Perkins, Lewis D. Thorpe and
Andrew W. Woodman were elected members of the Society.

The Secretary read his annual report, which was accepted.

The Treasurer read his annual report, which was accepted and ordered
to be placed on file.

Mr. Corthell presented and read the annual report of the Committee on
Excursions, which was accepted.

The Librarian presented and read the annual report of the Committee on
the Library, which was accepted.

Professor Allen presented and read the annual report of the Committee
on Quarters, which was accepted.

The Secretary read the annual report of the Board of Government,
which was also accepted.

On motion of Professor Swain, it was voted to adopt the recommenda-
tion of the Board of Government, that the incoming board be directed to
petition the General Court at its next session for authority to enable the
Society to hold a larger amount of personal and real estate.

The recommendation that the sum of $75 be appropriated for the pur-
chase of standard engineering books, was also adopted.

On motion of Mr. Stearns, it was voted to refer to the Board of Gov-
ernment, with full powers, the question of continuing the several special
committees of the Society, and the selection of the members thereof.

Messrs. Henry D. Woods and Henry A. Varney, the tellers of the
election, submitted the result of the letter ballot for officers.

In accordance with their report the President' announced the election of
the following officers :

President — Lawson B. Bidwell.

Vice-President (for 2 years) — X. Henry Goodnough.

Secretary — S. Everett Tinkham.

Treasurer — Edward W. Howe.

Librarian — Louis F. Cutter.

Director (for two years) — William M. Brown, Jr.

The President then introduced Mr. J. A. Ockerson, of St. Louis, a mem-
ber of the Mississippi River Commission, who read the paper of the evening,
entitled, "The Mississippi River; Some of Its Physical Characteristics, and
Measures Employed for the Regulation and Control of the Stream." The
paper was fully illustrated by stereopticon views.

On motion of Professor Swain, the thanks of the Society were voted to
Mr. Ockerson for his kindness in reading his valuable paper before the So-
ciety.

Before declaring the meeting adjourned the President introduced the
President-elect, Mr. Bidwell, who thanked the members for the honor which
they had conferred upon him.

Adjourned. S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.

32 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Annual Report of the Board of Government for the Year 1900-01.

Boston, March 20, 1901.
To the Members of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers:

In compliance with the provisions of the Constitution, the Board of Gov-
ernment submits its report for the year ending March 20, 1901.

At the last annual meeting the total membership of the Society was 490,
of which 482 were members, 2 honorary members and 6 associates. During
the past year we have lost 9 members ; 2 by death, 5 by resignation and 2 by
forfeiture of membership for non-payment of dues.

There have been added to the Society during the year 19 members, 17 of
these have been new members and 2 former members have been reinstated.

Our present membership consists of 2 honorary members, 6 associates
and 492 members ; a total of 500.

The record of the deaths during the year is: John C. Haskell, died
June 12, 1900; Moses W. Oliver, died September 8, 1900.

Ten regular meetings and one special meeting of the Society have been
held during the year, and the nineteenth annual dinner was given at the
Hotel Vendome on March 5, 1901.

The average attendance at the regular and special meetings was 74, the
largest being 142 and the smallest 45. The attendance at the annual dinner
was 149.

The following papers have been read at the several meetings :

March 21, 1900. — "The Outlook for Engineers," by President C. Frank
Allen.

April 4, 1900. — "The Evolution of the Modern Sky-scrapers," by Clar-
ence H. Blackall. (Illustrated.)

April 18, 1900. — "Difficulties Encountered in Building the Concord, Mass.,
Sewerage System," by Leonard Metcalf. (Illustrated.)

May 16, 1900. — "Automobile Vehicles," by Prof. Louis Derr. (Illus-
trated.)

June 20, 1900. — "Filtration Experiments made at Pittsburg," by Morris
Knowles. (Illustrated.)

September 19, 1900. — An account of matters of interest to engineers seen
in Europe during the past summer, by Henry Manley, Edward Sawyer, F. W.
Hodgdon, H. D. Woods and Desmond FitzGerald.

October 17, 1900. — "A Successful Siphon," by R. S. Hale. "Experiments
on Brick and Concrete Arches," by W. D. Bullock. "Tests of a Rapp Floor
and a Gustavino Arch," by F. H. Fay. "Expanded Metal in Connection
with Concrete Construction," by W. M. Bailey. "Ransome System of Con-
crete Work," by M. C. Tuttle. "The Roebling System," by A. W. Wood-
man. (Illustrated.) Memoir of John H. Blake.

November 21, 1900. — "The Use of Water Power by Direct Air Compres-
sion," by W. O. Webber. (Illustrated.)

December 19, 1900. — "Stone Arch Bridges Recently Constructed on the
Fitchburg Railroad," by A. S. Cheever. "Arch Centers," by J. W. Rollins,
Jr. (Illustrated.)

January 23, 1901. — "Palaces on the Grand Canal," by Desmond Fitz-
Gerald. (Illustrated.)

February 20, 1901. — "Submerged Pipe Crossings, on the Metropolitan
Water Works," by C. M. Saville. (Illustrated.)

PROCEEDINGS. 33

Five informal meetings have been held in the Society's library during the
past year. The subjects discussed at these meetings have been as follows :

March 28, 1900. — "A Year in Alaska," by Laurence B. Manley.

April 11, 1900. — "Improvement of Feeder to Middlesex Canal," by Arthur
T. Safford.

December 5, 1900. — "Street Construction as seen in the Streets of London,
Paris and other European Cities," by Henry Manley. Also, "Description of
the Pitch Lake in Trinidad," by H. T. Manley.

January 2, 1901. — "Methods of Mixing Concrete," by Sanford E. Thom-
son.

January 9, 1901. — "Some Impressions of Manila," by J. C. S. Taber.

The board desires to congratulate the Society upon its growth in strength,
both numerically and financially, and to call its attention to the fact that our
charter only allows us to hold real and personal estate to the amount of
$20,000, while at the present moment the property of the Society is worth not
far from $15,000.

In order to meet the contingencies of a bequest, or a movement in the
direction of securing permanent quarters and of the possible delays in ob-
taining the necessary legislation to hold a larger amount, the retiring board
recommends that the incoming one be authorized and directed to make ap-
plication to the next session of the General Court for the right to hold real
and personal estate to the amount of $100,000, or such other amount as that
board shall deem advisable.

The growth of our Society is nowhere more apparent than in the con-
gested condition of our Library, which needs much additional wall and floor
space for the material we have, and at the same time should be greatly
strengthened in standard engineering literature. To make room for the new
books it would seem best to send away for storage, until we have more
room, or otherwise dispose of such material, which can be very nearly, if
not quite as well consulted at the public libraries.

Two years since the Society adopted the policy of appropriating $50
annually for the purchase of standard engineering books. It now being ap-
parent that that step was a judicious one, and it being also clear that $50
annually is not sufficient to provide the new books which we should have, —
and many of the older ones which we have not as yet been financially able to
get, but cannot afford to be without, — the board recommends that the appro-
priation for this purpose be increased to $75 for the coming year.

We desire to call to the favorable attention of the Society the practice
the past year, adopted by the Excursion Committee, of causing to be printed
upon the notices of the monthly meetings information relating to engineering
work in progress in this part of the country, and to express the opinion
that it should be continued.

Respectfully submitted to the Board of Government,

Alexis H. French, President.

34 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Abstract of the Treasurer's and Secretary's Reports for the Year

1900-01.
Receipts: current fund.

Dues from new members $95.00

Dues for year 1899-1900 13.00

Dues for year 1900-01 3,38900

Dues for year 1901-02 29.00

Sales of Journals 2.10

Rent of rooms 900.00

Interest on deposits 23.77

Balance on hand, March 22, 1900 1,910.43

$6,362.30

Expenditures:

Rent $1,665.00

Association of Engineering Societies 1,004.50

Transferred to Permanent Fund 2,017.50

Printing, postage and stationery 469.04

Secretary salary 400.00

Furniture and repairs 117.63

Periodicals and binding 96.70

Incidentals 97-17

Annual dinner 85.50

Books 49.60

Stereopticon at meetings 80.00

Lighting rooms 26.34

Clerical work for Librarian 21.49

Reporting meeting 5.00

$6,135-47

Balance on hand $226.83

Receipts: permanent fund.

Seventeen entrance fees $170.00

Current fund 2,017.50

Shares Merchants' Co-operative Bank 1,147.18

Interest 225.30

Subscription to Building Fund 100.00

Balance on hand, March 22, 1900 165.54

$3,825.52

Expenditures:

Deposit in Franklin Savings Bank $1,017.50

Deposit in Provident Institution for Savings 37-35

Deposited in Boston Five-cents Savings Bank 39-74

Deposit in Eliot Five-cents Savings Bank 1,053.41

Deposit in Warren Institution for Savings 31.16

Deposit in Institution for Savings in Roxbury 27.64

Shares in Merchants' Co-operative Bank 586.71

Dues on shares, Merchants' Co-operative Bank 308.00

Dues on shares Workingmen's Co-operative Bank 300.00

Dues on shares Volunteer Co-operative Bank 300.00

$3,701.51

Balance on hand $124.01

PROCEEDINGS. 35

PROPERTY BELONGING TO THE PERMANENT FUND, MARCH 20, IOXd.

One Republican Valley R. R. bond (par value) $600.00

25 shares Merchants' Co-operative Bank 1,541.40

25 shares Workingmen's Co-operative Bank 2,048.00

25 shares Volunteer Co-operative Bank 1,992.00

Deposited in Provident Institution for Savings 1,177.69

Deposited in Boston Five-cents Savings Bank 1,165.99

Deposited in Eliot Five-cents Savings Bank 1,053.41

Deposited in Warren Institution for Savings 1,039.91

Deposited in Institution for Savings in Roxbury 1,027.64

Deposited in Franklin Savings Bank 1,017.50

Deposited in Old Colony Trust Company 124.01

$12,787.55

Amount belonging to Permanent Fund March 21, 1900 10,010.38

Increase during the year %2,jjj.ij

TOTAL PROPERTY OF THE SOCIETY IN THE POSSESSION OF THE TREASURER.

Permanent Fund $12,787.55

Current Fund 226.83

$13,014.38
Total amount March 21, 1900 11,920.81

Total increase during the year $1,093-57

Report of the Committee on Excursions.

Boston, Mass., March 20, 1901.
To the Members of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers:

Your Committee on Excursions presents the following report for the
year 1900-1901 :

Twelve excursions have been made during the year.

April 18, 1900. — To the Charlestown Bridge, and to inspect the Pneu-
matic Carrier System between the Union Station and the Post Office, Boston.
Attendance, 25.

May 16, 1900. — To the Boston Navy Yard, and the Hoosac Tunnel Docks,
both at Charlestown. Attendance, 140.

June 20, 1900. — To the work of Abolition of Grade Crossings at Con-
gress street; the Commonwealth Dock; and the Metropolitan Coal Com-
pany's coal handling plant, all in Boston. Attendance, 22.

July 18, 1900. — To the Fore River Engine Works, Weymouth. Attend-
ance, 103.

August 22, 1900. — To the sources of supply, New Bedford and Taunton
Water Works, Lakeville, Mass. Attendance, 25.

September 19, 1900. — To the Cape Ann Quarries and Breakwaters, Rock-
port, Mass. Attendance, 35.

October 17, 1900. — To the Wachusett Dam and Reservoirs, Metropolitan
Water Works, Clinton, Mass. Attendance, 47.

November 21, 1900. — To the Boston Elevated Railway. Attendance, 80.

December 6, 1900. — To the Cunard steamship "Saxonia." Attendance, 62.

.36 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

December 19, 1900. — To the New England Electric Vehicle Transporta-
tion Company's plant, Boston. Attendance, 22.

January 23, 1901. — To the factory of the Derby Desk Company, Somer-
ville. Attendance, 4.

February 20, 1001. — To the plant of the United States Steel Company,
West Everett. Attendance, 30.

Total attendance, 595 ; average, 50.

This total attendance of 595 compares very favorably with the record of
550 for the preceding year, and 600 for the year before that, the latter being
the highest figure ever attained.

Besides the regular work of planning and conducting excursions, your
committee has begun the publication of a monthly "Bulletin of New Engi-
neering Work," with the idea of furnishing the necessary information to
enable individual members to visit work in which they may be particularly
interested. Seven issues of the Bulletin have been published, besides one
special bulletin.

There is a cash balance of $22.54 in the hands of the committee.
Respectfully submitted,

A. B. Corthell,
Charles W. Sherman,
D. L. Turner,
John R. Burke,

Committee on Excursions.

Report of the Library Committee.

Boston, Mass., March 20, 1901.
To the Members of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers :

The Committee on the Library makes the following report for the year
1000-1901 : 217 volumes and a number of pamphlets have been added to the
library. The highest accession number is 4529. This number, however, does
not correctly represent the number of volumes in the library, as, in past years,
pamphlets have sometimes been entered in the accessions book.

The following engineering text-books, having been approved for purchase
by the Board of Government, were bought at an expense of $49.60. Those
marked with a star were approved by the Board of Government of the
preceding year, but were not then purchased on account of the insufficiency
of the appropriation.

LIST OF TEXT-BOOKS BOUGHT, I9OO-OI.

Herschel : Frontinus and the Water Supply of the City of Rome."

Wegmann : "Design and Construction of Dams."

Christie : "Chimney Design."
^Engineering News: General Index, 1890-99.

Wolff : "Windmill as a Prime Mover."

Goodell : "Water Works for Small Cities and Towns."
*Ganguillet & Kutter : "Flow of Water in Channels," tr. Trautwine.

Tillson : "Street Pavements and Paving Materials."

Wilson: "Topographic Surveying."

Wait: "Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction."
*Pryde: "Chambers's Tables."

Woodhead : "Bacteria and their Products."

PROCEEDINGS. 37

Howe : "Retaining Walls."
*Kent : "Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book."
*Campbell : Manufacture and Properties of Structural Steel."

Howe : "Arches."

Engineering News: "Piles and Pile Driving."

Early in the year the Board of Government requested from the Library
Committee a report on the question of "What ought to be the general policy
of the library in the acquisition of books, especially in the purchase of refer-
ence and text-books?" and "What additional periodicals, if any, ought
to be subscribed for?" Reports on these questions were submitted in the
course of the year, and are recorded in the minutes of the Board of Govern-
ment. The recommendations are in substance as follows : The general
policy of the library ought to continue as hitherto, a specialty being made of
State and Municipal reports that are of engineering interest, but more at-
tention ought to be given to engineering text and reference books. An
annual expenditure of about $75 for such books was advised.

On the question of additional periodicals a list was presented, all but two
of which were subsequently approved by the Board of Government, and
were added to our table. The following periodicals and society publications
are now regularly received and placed on our table. Those marked with a
star are not preserved and bound.

American Architect.
* American Gas-Light Journal.

American Institute of Electrical Engineers, transactions..

American Institute of Mining Engineers, transactions.

American Society of Civil Engineers, transactions.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, transactions.
^American Trade.

Association of Engineering Societies, journal.

Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, transactions.

Cassier's Magazine.

Deutsch-Amerikanischen Techniker-Verband, Mitteilungen.

Electrical World.

Engineer (London).

Engineering (London).

Engineering and Mining Journal.

Engineering Magazine.

Engineering News.

Engineering Record.

Engineers' Association of the South, proceedings.

Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, proceedings.

Engineers' Society of Western Pennsylvania, proceedings.

Forester.

Franklin Institute, journal.

Indian Engineer.

Institute of Mechanical Engineers (London), proceedings.

Institution of Civil Engineers (London), proceedings.
*Iron Age.
*Irrigation Age.

Liverpool Engineering Society, transactions.
*Marine Engineering. }

38 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Master Car Builders' Association, proceedings.
^Municipal Engineering.

New England Water Works Association, journal.

Nova Scotia Institute of Science, proceedings and transactions.

Ponts et chaussees, Annales des.

Railroad Gazette.

Societe des Ingenieurs Civils, memoires.

Street Railway Revieiv.

Technology Quarterly.

Technology Review.

United States Naval Institute, proceedings.
*United States Patent Office Gazette.

University of Wisconsin, bulletin.

Verein deutcher Ingenieure, Zeitschrift.

Western Society of Engineers, journal.

Worcester Polytechnic Institute, journal.

Besides the usual accessions of government, state and city reports,
several notable accessions by gift have been received. The Massachusetts
Topographical Survey Commission has made our library one of the places
of deposit for the atlases of the Town Boundary Survey, and 35 atlases have
been received. From M. Eiffel have come two sumptuous volumes, a de-
scription and illustrations of the Tower of 300 Meters. From our Past
President, Desmond FitzGerald, we have 7 volumes of London Engineering
and 8 volumes of Spon's Engineering Dictionary. Mr. FitzGerald's gifts ar-
rived too late to be accessioned before the annual meeting, and are not in-
cluded in the 217 volumes mentioned at the beginning of this report, nor are
the 50 volumes of the Zeitschrift fur Bauwesen, the gift of our Past Presi-
dent Clemens Herschel. These were given under the condition that they
should be kept together and marked with the donor's name, and not borrowed
from the library. These conditions were accepted by the Board of Govern-
ment on March 16.

Towards the end of 1900, practically the whole of our shelf room was
filled, leaving no space for the expansion of our library or for that of our sub-
tenants, the Water Works Association, and it became necessary to provide
additional room. A new bookcase was constructed at a cost of about $75,
against the west wall, beside and over the little window. This gives about
76 lineal feet of additional shelving. To make this available for the ex-
pansion of each of the ten sections of the library, it was necessary to re-
arrange nearly all the books. This was done, and after giving up about 37
lineal feet of shelving for the use of our tenants we have left for ourselves
(by putting a number of the less used books in the rear rank), sufficient
room for the normal growth of about three years.

Shelf lists of certain of the municipal reports have been made by Mr.
Bryant, and shelf lists of the State reports have been begun by Mr. Flinn
and the Librarian.

Throughout the year a large number of duplicate copies of periodicals
have encumbered the room. Negotiations have been in progress for a
storage within the building, but so far no satisfactory arrangement has been
arrived at. If no convenient storage place can be found, it will become a
question whether it would not be better to dispose of all the bulky duplicates.
While this store of duplicates is an occasional convenience to our members, so

PROCEEDINGS. 39

that $4.10 worth have been sold in the course of the past year, yet the enj
cumbrance and disfigurement of the library is a high price to pay for this
occasional service. The present periodical rack is not convenient. It cuts off
the light from the further side of the table, and it is not easy to keep in order.
We recommend to our successors that they study means for the more con-
venient storage of the current periodicals. Another question which we
bequeath to our successors is that of certain reports that contain but little
matter of engineering interest. In view of the lack of room, it seems doubt-
ful whether it is wise to continue to receive such reports, or even to keep on
the shelves those volumes that we already have.

Respectfully submitted,

Louis F. Cutter, Chairman,
Frederic H. Fay,
Frank P. McKibben,
of the Committee on the Library.

Report of the Committee on Quarters.

Boston, March 20, 1901.
To the Boston Society of Civil Engineers:

The Committee on Quarters have examined several pieces of property
during the past year, with reference to purchase, but have been unable to find
a lot which will not involve the expenditure of a large amount of money to
adapt it to the needs of the Society.

As the lease for the present quarters in Tremont Temple expires on May
I, 1902, and our library is already crowded, it seems to your committee that
some steps should be taken during the present year towards securing a house
for the Society. This will probably involve the expenditure of about $80,000.
From the report of the Treasurer, it appears that we now have $12,787.55 in
the treasury.

There are several societies in Boston which, like our own, are looking
for permanent quarters. The most feasible scheme for building, without en-
cumbering the Society with a heavy debt, seems to be to unite with several
other societies, if such can be found, and erect a building to be used in
common.

If a movement in this direction appears to be desirable, your committee
intend to make at once an effort towards securing the co-operation of some
other societies.

Respectfully submitted,

Desmond FitzGerald, Chairman.

Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland.

Annual Address of the President.

The work of a scientific or technical society is, I take it, of a three-
fold nature : to keep alive the idea of the professional life ; to establish cordial
relations between the several members of the different professions repre-
sented; and to furnish a means for the spreading of the results of the
latest researches amongst the members.

Without having planned to arrange the work of the year under these
heads, it may be fairly described under some such classification.

With great earnestness on the part of the Membership Committee
of the year just closing, and of the same committee of the year preceding,

40 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

the men of the city in the different professions represented have been
sought out and invited to affiliate themselves with our Society. The idea
has been to band together in one society having proper central head-
quarters all men associated in several lines of work. It has been hoped
that by persistent work nearly every man so engaged could be induced to
feel that the professional aspect of his work could best be fostered by being
with us in the work we have set ourselves to do. So many men on
leaving college find, in due time, their proper sphere of usefulness and,
before they know it, are in a rut. They do their day's work and go home.
They may take one technical journal and even go so far as to conscien-
tiously read it. But from the fact that their daily work is so constant, and
perhaps fatiguing, they straightway forget (so it often seems as you
observe them) that they are technically educated; that they are profes-
sional men as opposed to business men; that they have to do with creative
technical problems rather than the sale, manufacture or transfer of some
commodity. Soon they drop out of the Alumni Club of their college,
take little interest in the theoretical part of their life work, and plod along,
doing the best they can in the environments more or less unideal which sur-
round us all in our daily work.

To belong to a profession is a privilege. It may or may not be as
remunerative as many lines of business. That is neither here nor there.
The man should feel that he would rather follow it than engage in any
other work — money or no money. In a sense the engineer should be
made from the man who is good for nothing else; or, putting it the re-
verse, he should be good for engineering or architecture and for nothing
else. To such an one the daily work is only a part of the pleasure of
being of the profession he represents. To take pride in the great works
and achievements of others laboring in the same field, which represent
not so much money earned by the engineer as great mental power and
genius, — this is one of the emoluments of the profession. To keep in
touch with great feats of the mind, great conquering of mind over matter,
and to feel that we are a part of the same profession, contributing our
conscientious daily labor toward the progress of the world, — all this
should be one of the distinct aims of any man, I believe, in following a
chosen technical line. In some measure this can be accomplished by the
individual working and thinking alone. But we believe that being a
member of our Society, and receiving our journal and attending our
meetings, tends to keep warm in a man's heart the thought that he had when
as a student at college, — he warmed toward the other fellow, because he
was of his course, studying his special studies, bright in his own lines of
thought, full of the same aspirations in life. We are here of one mind.
We believe in the work of others greater than ourselves, and in this we
find comfort. We are proud of our vocation, and we encourage each other
in this idea that in the professional life we have some ideals and thoughts
not common to the business life.

Through the endeavors of the Membership Committee the Club has
increased its roll by thirty-eight new names during the past year, thus
making the largest advance in the Club's history.

The second division under which I would speak of the work of the year is
that of establishing and cultivating cordial relations between the men allied
to each other directly or indirectly, and whose names are upon our rolls.

PROCEEDINGS. 41

This is certainly a very worthy work. I fancy that technical men become
reserved in manner more often than the men of what we might term the
talking professions, such as law, medicine and the ministry. While it
probably is not fair to say that the engineer does more thinking than the
lawyer or the minister, he certainly does do less talking. To acquire a
habit of much thinking and little talking is, I think, on the Darwinian
theory, to render the individual less prone to talk easily and freely and more
and more likely to confine himself more and more closely to the daily task, —
letting his relations with his fellow practitioners grow less and less cordial,
until he finds himself almost alone in his work. Companionship of the right
sort of men in the same line is uplifting. It is encouraging. It is sweetening.
Nothing so dispels the professional jealousies as this companionship in a
cordial society. The rivalries of life tend to separate men. In the business
life it is what is termed competition, meaning generally a war over price. In
the technical professional life it is a mental comparison more often — a silent
battle of mind against minds, which is none the less acute because the men
are reserved. Our club life has for one of its main objects the breaking down
of all these barriers. It aims to have its men frankly know each other
better, and as they learn how free from bitterness and even envy and
conceit the other is, they feel kindlier toward all and more hopeful. I
believe the saying, "Come with us and we will do you good," is a truthful
remark and represents at least our best wishes toward the men devoted
to the technical professions in Cleveland. An especial effort has been
made this year to make the meetings attractive from the social point of
view. When we were in the Case Building we had to adjourn to a res-
taurant in order to have a social gathering after the literary part of the
program. With our new rooms it has been possible to have a delightful
lunch served immediately after the meeting itself, during which time we
have had rare opportunities to become acquainted and to welcome visitors
and strangers. I am sure we have enjoyed those meetings. The new
member has found it much easier to know and be known by the men
attending. I trust that in the new year this social feature will be intro-
duced where feasible.

A third division of the work, and really one of the greatest import-
ance, is the furnishing the means of spreading the results of the latest
researches amongst the members. The business man withholds the secrets
of his business to a great degree from his competitors. The professional
man considers it in a great measure unprofessional to keep to himself ad-
vance work in his own line of study. And is not this one of the great dis-
tinctions between the business and professional life? And does it not indi-
cate a breadth of thought, a sweet giving to others the results of many
years it may be of careful work. It is a matter of which the medical pro-
fession should be proud, that, no sooner does a surgeon or physician dis-
cover a new method or treatment than straightway he publishes it. His
gain is professional honor and recognition. His financial reward is only
indirect.

And I believe that the professional man so guiding his career is him-
self more the gainer than he is the loser. It is generous to give freely;
but in the giving one becomes, I believe, more sensitively appreciative of
the results of others' study. It is not an ill bargain one makes with the
world to thus give. I think those who have thus given to our Club of

42 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

their best thought and experience feel as I do. We should foster this-
spirit. Fine rooms are splendid accessories, but they are only accessories.
The real thing is the work of the brains represented. Even the social life
is second to that. As professional men, we are professional thinkers and
incidentally doers. But the doing is easier than the thinking in most
cases, and in all cases the thinking is the result of the finer quality of the
mind.

To encourage fine technical thinking is a worthy object. And our
Club is certainly doing much to fulfill its mission if it shall encourage to
the utmost all advanced thinkers. It furnishes a place where they can
deliver their views and, through the use of its journal, spread the subject
matter before men of many cities. This work has been in the hands of a
Program Committee, of which Mr. Green is chairman, which has had entire
charge of the literary part of the year's work. I will not refer in detail
to their work. It has seemed admirable, and I wish publicly to thank
them for thus upholding the officers of the year in so signal a manner.
There is much missionary work which might be done still, and especially
amongst the new members. With the larger membership comes a larger
field for the Program Committee. The literary part of the Civil Engi-
neers' Club, I therefore prophesy, is to grow better and broader from year to
year.

The having of fine rooms has made it possible to entertain the ladies
in our rooms. This might properly be made a feature of the work. To
an extent of which the outside public are hardly aware, the wife of a
technical man knows and feels more or less of the daily work of the
husband. To invite the ladies to occasionally listen to our papers would,
it seems to me, be the means of assisting them to more fully appreciate
their husbands' work. When we think of Mr. Roebling's wife assisting
him in his great undertaking at his bedside, we realize what, in extreme
cases, the wife might do. At least to encourage their coming, and, com-
ing, too, at stated times, to hear of engineering matters, is a matter
I should like to see tried. If, at such a time, we all made it a point to
bring our wives, I am sure they would vote the evening a success. We
held one such meeting at Christmas time, and it was a success from every
point of view. I wish we might decide at least to have a ladies' night at
the holidays and make it a feature of the year.

One more matter I shall speak of, and then I am done. The library
of the Club has been brought over to our rooms and an extra room
rented and the libraries of all the societies housed there together. This
is a most important advanced step and, I trust, will be the means of the
books being more used than they have been. A new step has been taken
also in this connection, and by one of our own members, — Mr. Searles.
He has very generously donated a valuable collection of technical books
to the Club.

Would it not be possible to get the several members of our Society to
give a book now and then to the Club's library? I mean, a book from
their own private shelves. A book perhaps well worn (that will prove its
value): perhaps with side notations or its pages indicating that its owner
was alive and thinking. I think that each year quite a number of books
could thus be added and would prove invaluable. And especially might
it be practical to urge that the men about to retire ever have in mind that

PROCEEDINGS. 43

our library is a better place for technical books than some garret or
upstairs hall, as is the fate of so many professional books, — whether on
engineering, architecture, medicine, law or religious subjects.

In connection with the library, one other thought comes to me:
Would it not be possible to make it a circulating library and thus make
the books do a much larger work? Of course, only one copy of a work is
on our shelves, and it therefore might be out when called for. But when
we consider how seldom any book is called for under the present system,
it would not seem to be taking very great chances. Of all the library rules
which work hardship in both of our public libraries, that which forces the
patrons to stay in the rooms in order to use the reference books is the
greatest. It may be necessary, although I should doubt it; but certainly
very, very few ever use the reference books as a result. It would be better
to lose a book now and then, and feel that the rest were filling a great
want, than to debar so many from their use. A tired man is a poor one
to go several miles after dinner to a reference library unless he is obliged
to, and who of us can take the time in daylight to spend there? In our
own little library, would it be sacrilege to allow our books to go out under
some simple system? Say for a week only, with power to renew for one
week if no card is deposited for it? I believe it would in this way fill in a
want which the two great libraries seem unable to meet.

I cannot think but that our members would appreciate it and would
soon consider it as one of the good things about our Club. I would
respectfully suggest that this matter be brought up by the new board
and Librarian and ways be provided to bring it about.

Gentlemen, the task of the officers you elected a year ago is done.
For your kindness and forbearance during the year we thank you. For
your support we shall ever be grateful. And we trust that, as the years
pass on, the Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland will grow stronger and
stronger, more and more honorable and efficient, until our Club will be
counted one of the strong, wholesome, uplifting institutions of our beau-
tiful Forest City.

Secretary's Report.

During the year the Club has held ten regular meetings, eight semi-
monthly and three receptions.

The average attendance for the regular meetings has been 24 mem-
bers and 9 visitors; for the semi-monthly meetings 19 members and 7
visitors.

The membership on March 1, 1900, consisted of 5 honorary members,
22 corresponding members, 20 associate members and 133 active members,
a total of 180.

During the year we have lost by death Messrs. Roswell H. St. John,
Henry M. Claflin and Joseph T. Talbot, all active members.

Eight members, four corresponding, three active and one associate,
have resigned and one active has been dropped.

Forty-seven active members, one associate member and one corre-
sponding member have been elected. These changes during the year left,
on March 1, 1901, 5 honorary members, 19 corresponding members, 20 as-
sociate members and 174 active members, a total of 218, showing a net
gain of 38 members over the list of March 1, 1900.

44 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

FINANCIAL STATEMENT.

BALANCES ON MARCH I, IOXDO.

Permanent Fund $9I5-55

General Fund 3iI-&4

Library Fund 17374

$1,401.13

RECEIPTS, MARCH I, IQOO, TO MARCH I, IOX)I.

Dues $1728.00

Fees 240.00

Library Subscriptions • I5-0O

Refunded Postage .60

Western Cement Co. (Journal) 3-00

Advertising Commission ;o.20

Interest 39-58

$2,096.38

EXPENSES.

Periodicals $30.65

Printing 17472

Salaries 200.00

Postage and Express 61.70

Stationery, etc 17.68

Books 59-27

Journal 38775

Rent 692.00

Certificates 12.00

Social Account 328.16

Case Library 75-00

Furniture 23.25

Flowers 10.00

$2,072.18

Net receipts $24.20

BALANCES ON. HAND MARCH I, IQOI.

Permanent Fund $1,195.13

General Fund 100.73

Library Fund 129.47

$1,425.33
Arthur A. Skeels, Secretary.

Report of the Librarian.
Your Librarian regrets that, owing to his absence from the city
during nearly the whole year, he has been unable to devote as much
time to the library as he would gladly have done, and at the same time
he wishes to express his gratitude for the valuable assistance of our
former Librarian, Mr. A. Lincoln Hyde, who has acted in the writer's
place during his absence. Through Mr. Hyde, arrangements were made
for the transfer of the Club's library from its old quarters in Case Library

PROCEEDINGS. 45

to our new rooms in the Associated Technical Clubs, the matter having
been duly proposed at a meeting of the Club and authorized by its vote.

Cases for the library were ordered several months ago, but, owing
to delay in their completion and shipment, they have only just been re-
ceived, and within the last week the greater portion of the books com-
prising our library have been put in place in them. The cases which
were gotten for these books were purchased with money appropriated
from the general treasury of the Club, and not from the special library
fund, in order that the latter might be kept intact for the special purpose
for which it was given. One reason which made it desirable to trans er
the library at this time was that the subscriptions which were inaugu-
rated five years ago to this fund have just been completed, and further,
the agreement between the Case Library and ourselves, by which they
were, during this same period, to appropriate for the purchase of en-
gineering: works an equal amount of money to that expended by the
Civil Engineers' Club, has also terminated. Regarding this private sub-
scription, while there are still some who are not as yet amenable to the
persuasion of your Library Committee and are still in arrears as to their
last payment, yet there is but a comparatively small sum outstanding as
coming from those of whom we can expect payment, and the original
list has been considerably depleted by death or removal from the city.
In fact, it was the observation of your Committee that those who most
earnestly and generously contributed to this fund, judging as one may
from outward appearances, could hardly be classed among the members
best able to carry this burden; and your Committee would therefore re-
spectfully recommend, in view of the termination of these subscriptions and
under the present good financial standing of the Club, that an appropriation
for the library be made from the general treasury, so that the burden may
come more evenly on the whole membership than has heretofore been the case.

Through the generosity of one of the members of the Club, who
always has had its interest at heart, we have been brought into the
possession of some two hundred engineering volumes of great interest,
and in behalf of the Club your Committee would again gratefully ac-
knowledge this gift from Mr. W. H. Searles, past president of the Club.
Besides important civil engineering works, there will be found among
the books given by him valuable contributions on the subject of the
Great Pyramid, Transactions of the Antimetric Society, etc. Mr. Eiffel,
the famous engineer and promoter of the great tower which bears his
name on the Champ de Mars in Paris, has presented to the Club three
most valuable works, covering a complete history of the design and erec-
tion of that great triumph of engineering work.

Your Committee believes that the transactions of the various tech-
nical societies in which the members of our Club are interested are of
special value to our library, since, in these transactions, the engineering
topics of the day are best discussed from year to year, and since such
transactions are not as easily found or procured by those who are pos-
sessed of private libraries as are the individual treatises on these same
subjects, and it therefore gives us pleasure to state that we have, on our
shelves, complete to 1893 and 1896, the Transactions of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, the Transactions of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers nearly complete, and it is needless to say that we

46 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

would be greatly indebted to any of the members of our Club who may
be members of either of these societies, and who might feel disposed to
give us the few remaining numbers.

For some time we have been favored with the reports of the Chief
Signal Officer, the War Department, the Secretary of War, etc., so
that the Club now has 245 volumes of these reports. At the present time
there is not enough room in our library to give them place, and they
have therefore been stored away where they can be gotten at more or
less readily, and, if considered important and if our quarters will permit,
arrangement will be made later for still more easy access to them.

The Club has subscribed for a number of periodicals of literary
interest for the reading room of the Associated Technical Clubs, but
these periodicals have been paid for from the funds of the Club and not
from the library fund.

In anticipation of the change from the Case Library to our present
quarters, and in view of the fact that we had, while there, the advantage
of so many engineering works which are not the property of our Club,
your librarian deemed it advisable to allow part of the money collected
to remain with the treasurer unspent, so that it might be used at such a
time as the present for purchasing books similar to those now in the
possession of the Case Library, and the end of this fiscal year therefore
finds us with somewhat over $129.47 which can be used for this purpose.

Your Committee would gratefully acknowledge the kind interest of
Dr. Howe, member of the Library House Committee, as well as Mr.
A. Lincoln Hyde for valuable assistance in our work. We believe that
the removal of the library to its present quarters will be of great ad-
vantage to the Club and that the prospects for the coming year are
brighter than ever for those who are interested in our technical library.

Respectfully submitted,

Wm. E. Reed, Librarian.

The papers during the past year have been more than usually inter-
esting and instructive and of such variety of subjects as to interest all.

Although two papers per month were prepared for the spring and
early summer of 1900, it was not expected to hold regularly two meetings
per month. In October, however, it was decided that two meetings
would be desirable, and from that time the Club has met and listened to
a paper twice each month.

The stereopticon has been freely used during the year and has proved
a valuable feature and a great aid. Of the sixteen papers presented, eight
have been illustrated by slides.

During the summer months of July and August, 1900, no meetings
were held, but an outing at Beach Park on July 21 was thoroughly
enjoyed by a large number.

The second meeting in December, occurring regularly on Christmas
evening, was postponed until the evening of December 28 and a special
Christmas entertainment prepared. These special gatherings of a social
nature should be encouraged. One of the greatest needs of our Club
is a closer social relationship and a wider acquaintance among the mem-
bers, and there can be no better way to promote this than by occasional
good times together. The regular meetings do not seem to cultivate
this social spirit to a sufficient degree.

PROCEEDINGS. 47

It was suggested a year ago that a question box be established,
wherein questions for discussion by members of the Club could be placed
by any member. No material box was provided, but it was announced
that any questions addressed to the Club through its Secretary or
through the Program Committee would be promptly brought before the
Club for discussion. The members have not availed themselves of this
feature to any alarming degree. In fact, two questions, propounded by
the same interrogator, have been the sole fruit during the year.

It was also suggested that possibly papers would be more varied in
interest, and might be easier of preparation if they were made shorter,
and two subjects were taken up at each meeting. The fact seems
to be, however, that any one preparing upon any topic finds, when he has
gathered his data, that the difficulty is in concentrating it to a sufficient
degree, and the necessity seldom arises for increasing the length or scope

of a paper or topic.

Respectfully submitted,

Bernard L. Green, Chairman.

Treasurer's Report.

receipts.
Cash on hand March 1, 1900:

Permanent Fund $9I5-55

General Fund 311-84

Library Fund 173-74

$1,401.13

Received from Secretary on account of Permanent Fund $279.58

" " " " General Fund... 1,801.80

" " Library Fund... 15.00

2,096.38

$3,497.51

DISBURSED.

Secretary's vouchers on account of General Fund, Nos.

101 to 156, inclusive $2,012.91

Secretary's vouchers on account of Library Fund, Nos.

22 to 32, inclusive 59-27

2,072.18

CASH ON HAND FEBRUARY 28, I9OI.

Permanent Fund $1,195.13

General Fund 100.73

Library Fund 129.47

1,425-33

$3,497.51
John N. Coffin, Treasurer.

Engineers' Club of St. Louis.

522D Meeting, March 6, 1901. — Held at 1600 Lucas Place at 8.15 p.m.;
Vice-President Kinealy presiding.

Attendance, twenty-five members and nine visitors.

Minutes of the 521st meeting were read and approved with corrections.

Minutes of the 306th meeting of the Executive Committee were read.

A communication from the Finance Committee of the Public Welfare
Commission, requesting a subscription by the Club of $100 toward the ex-

48 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

pense of the commission, was read. The Executive Committee, having con-
sidered the matter, recommended that the objects of the Club did not warrant
the Club to make an appropriation of this character, but that it would be well
for the members of the Club to give the commission their assistance as citi-
zens. Motion was passed to adopt the recommendation of the Executive
Committee.

The members of the Board of Managers having reported to the Execu-
tive Committee a plan whereby advertisements for the Journal and Bulletin
would be solicited by an agent to be employed on a commission basis, the
Executive Committee recommended that the Club give the members of the
Board of Managers full power to put said plan into operation. Motion was
passed to adopt the recommendation of the Executive Committee.

Messrs. W. H. Henby, Truman M. Post and Louis Bendit were elected
to membership.

The subject of the evening was an informal address on "The Develop-
ment of the Steam Engine," by Prof. J. H. Kinealy. The speaker gave a
very interesting talk, fully illustrated by lantern slides, and he reviewed the
various forms of engines from the earliest known down to the latest develop-
ments.

Discussion was participated in by Messrs. Ockerson, Bryan, Van Ornum,
Borden and Humphrey.

Mr. Maltby, for the Committee on Lantern, reported they had bought a
reading lamp for the meeting room, and a new lamp for the lantern, and had
contracted for the necessary direct current for the lamp.

Motion was carried to ratify the action of the Committee on Lantern.

For the next meeting announcement was made of a paper by Mr. S.
Bent Russell, principal assistant engineer, water works extension, on "Bank
Revetment Work at the Chain of Rocks Pumping Station," illustrated by
lantern slides.

Adjourned to an adjoining room, where lunch was served.

W. G. Brenneke, Secretary.

523D Meeting, March 20, 1901. — Held at 1600 Lucas Place at 8.20
p.m.; President Spencer presiding.

Twenty-four members and four visitors were present.

The minutes of the 522d meeting were read and approved.

Mr. Flad, Chairman of the Committee on Lantern, submitted the
formal report of the committee to the Club. As the committee had
reported at the previous meeting and a motion carried to ratify the
action of the committee, no action was taken at this meeting on the
report.

Professor Van Ornum was then requested to take the chair, and
President Spencer addressed the Club in behalf of the Public Welfare
Commission, explaining in detail the objects and needs of the com-
mission, its relation to the Engineers' Club, and the work it had so
far accomplished. After President Spencer resumed the chair, Professor
Van Ornum moved, and it was duly seconded, that the Executive Com-
mittee be empowered to take action looking toward the subscription,
by the Club as individual members, to the amount desired by the com-
mission. Mr. Flad moved as a substitute that the Executive Committee
be directed to pay the $100 assessed against the Engineers' Club out of

PROCEEDINGS. 49

the Entertainment Fund. Mr. Bouton objected, as this was a trust fund,
and he thought its use was restricted. Mr. Wheeler stated that the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers turned this fund over to the
Club in trust without any restrictions. After considerable discussion,
Mr. Flad's motion was voted upon and carried.

The subject of the evening was an informal address by Mr. S. Bent
Russell on "Revetment of River Bank at the Chain of Rocks by the St.
Louis Water Department." Maps and general plans were exhibited
showing the conditions and scheme of construction. Lantern slides were
also exhibited, showing the progress of the work at different times, the
plant used in the work, etc. The work is estimated to cost when com-
plete about $80,000, and has extended over a period of about four years.
The bank protected is about 6000 feet long and from 25 to 30 feet in
vertical height. The points of greatest interest are the use of gravel
concrete in the place of the usual rip-rap on the upper bank, and the
method used to prevent the revetment being undermined at the toe of
the slope where the work rested on soft material. These methods in-
clude rip-rap dikes, brush mattresses, and aprons made of sawed lumber
bound together with wire cable and sunk with rip-rap. Another point
of interest is the treatment of the bank where it showed a disposition to
slide or slough off.

Discussion followed by Messrs. Maltby and Turner.

For the next meeting announcement was made of a paper by Mr.
Louis Bendit on "Treatment of Feed Water for Boilers."

Adjourned to library room, where lunch was served.

E. B. Fay, Secretary pro tern.

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Regular Meeting, March i, iooi. — Called to order at 8.30 p.m. by
President Marx.

The minutes of the last regular meeting were read and approved.

Mr. Chas. M. Kurtz read a carefully prepared paper before the Society,
embodying a "Review of the Various Methods of Concrete and Iron Con-
struction used during the Last Decade," which subject was discussed at
length by Messrs. Keating, Wing, Prutzman, Wagoner and others.

Meeting thereupon adjourned.

Otto von Geldern, Secretary.

Regular Meeting, San Francisco, Cal., April 5, 1901. — Called to
order at 8.30 p.m. by President Marx. The minutes of the last regular meet-
ing were read and approved.

The following names were added to the membership upon regular count
of ballots :

Member — Chas. Albert de St. Maurice, civil engineer, of Eldridge, Cal.

Junior Member — James D. Mortimer, instructor in electrical engineering,
University of California.

Associate Member — Milo Hoadley, of San Francisco.

The following name was proposed :

A. S. Riffle, civil engineer, of San Francisco, by D. C. Henny, Otto von
Geldern and Adolf Lietz.

So ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Professor Elwood Mead, of the University of California, then addressed
the Society on the subject of "Irrigation in California," which was discussed
by many members present.

The President suggested that the Technical Society act in conjunction
with the Water and Forest Association, and that steps be taken to perfect
some action of this character.

A motion was made by Mr. Henny that the Chair appoint a committee
to confer with the Water and Forest Association in the work now carried on
in this State, and that the President be an ex-officio member of such com-
mittee, consisting of five members. Motion was carried, and the Chairman
announced that he would appoint this committee at the next Director's meet-
ing.

On motion, a vote of thanks was passed by the Society, expressing the
full appreciation of its members to Professor Elwood Mead for his courtesy
in lecturing on the important subject of "Irrigation in California."

Adjourned.

Otto von Geldern, Secretary.

Engineers' Club of Cincinnati.

121ST Regular Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio, February 21, 1901. — Dinner
was served at 6.15 p.m.

The regular meeting was called to order at 7.15 p.m. Vice-President
Bogen in the chair.

There were eighteen members present.

Minutes of the meeting of January 17 were read and approved.

Application for active membership was presented by Mr. A. N.
Miller.

On ballots being taken, Messrs. R. J. Devenish and John P. Brooks
were elected active members and Mr. Guy M. Gest was elected an asso-
ciate member.

The committee appointed to prepare memoir of Sherman E. Burke,
presented the same, which was ordered received and spread on the
minutes of the Club.

Mr. Frank L. Fales read the paper for the evening, on "Water
Purification and Sewage Disposal at the Lawrence Experiment Station."

After a short discussion of the subject and a vote of thanks to Mr.
Fales for his paper, the Club adjourned.

J. F. Wilson, Secretary.

Engineers' Society of Western New York.

Regular Meeting, March 5, 1901. — Meeting called to order at 8 p.m.;
the President in the chair. The following members present : Messrs. Haven,
Knighton, Knapp, Booz, Fell, Fruauff, Bardol, Tutton, Whitford, Tresise,
Rogers, Babcock, Rockwood, Roberts, Weston, Diehl, Kielland, Norton,
Buttolph, Vander Hoek, McKeown, Morse and several visitors.

Applications for associate were read from the following : William
Franklin and John Feist. It was voted that the applications be approved and
letter ballot ordered.

PROCEEDINGS. 51

It was moved by Mr. Knighton, and seconded by Mr. Diehl that Mr.
Ricker be requested to rewrite his paper on Docks and resubmit it to the
Society, and that the paper and discussion be published in the Journal of the
Association of Engineering Societies. Carried.

The Executive Board reported that they would send out the following
letter to various Engineers, Societies, etc. :

Engineers' Society of Western New York,
975 Ellicott Square,

Buffalo, N. Y., March 12, 1901.
The Pan-American Exposition to be held in this city the present year
will offer much of interest to Engineers.

We regret that the plan proposed for a separate engineering exhibit has
been found impracticable.

The Engineers' Society of Western New York desires to extend to visit-
ing Engineers every possible courtesy. Its rooms are most centrally located
in the Ellicott Square Building. The headquarters of the Exposition, tele-
graph office, telephone station, restaurant, etc., are in the building.

During the Exposition our rooms will be open during the day, and we
extend a most cordial invitation to the members of your Society and all visit-
ing engineers to make use of them while in Buffalo.

Your mail addressed care of "Engineers' Society of Western New York,
No. 975 Ellicott Square," will be cared for, and information gladly furnished
regarding the Exposition and other points of interest to engineers in the city
and vicinity.

A stenographer will be in attendance, whose services may be procured
by visiting engineers.

Meetings of the Society are held the first Tuesday in each month, at
which all visiting engineers will be most heartily welcomed.

Yours respectfully,

William A. Haven,
Prest. Engrs.' Soc. W. N. Y.

The Executive Board reported the election of the following gentlemen :
As members, Stanley W. Hayes and Edward Denison Hooker; as associates,
Leslie J. Bennett and Warren Rodney.

It was moved by Mr. Knighton and seconded by Mr. Norton that a
special invitation be sent to the new members, and some little extra exertion
made to become acquainted with and to entertain them. Carried.

Mr. Neher read a paper on concrete construction.

Mr. Neher's paper was discussed by Messrs. Diehl, Haven, Knighton,

Vander Hoek, Tutton, Rockwood and Norton, and the author.

Meeting adjourned at 10.30 p.m.

G. C. Diehl, Secretary.

Engineers' Club of Minneapolis.

141 st Meeting, February 18, 1901. — The meeting was held in con-
nection with a dinner at the Commercial Club.

The Club listened to reports and addresses by the outgoing officers:
Geo. W. Sublette, President; W. W. Redfield, Librarian; H. E. Smith,
Secretary-Treasurer; Geo. D. Shepardson, member Board of Managers of

52 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Association of Engineering Societies. Also addresses by incoming officers :
W. W. Redfield, President; C. L. Pillsbury, Vice-President; J. E. Carroll,
Librarian; Edward P. Burch, Secretary-Treasurer; Wm. R. Hoag, member
Board of Managers of Association of Engineering Societies.

Col. J. T. Fanning, who was present as a guest of the Society, gave an
interesting address on "Engineering in the Last Century." Past Vice-
President Irving E. Howe and others also spoke informally.

Mr. Fanning was unanimously elected an honorary member of the Club.

142D Meeting, March 18, 1901. — The meeting was held in connection
with a dinner at the Guaranty Restaurant.

The following new members were unanimously elected : Messrs. C. H.
Chalmers, Edwin R. Williams, P. P. Crafts, James Gillman, F. B. Slocum.
The following names were proposed for membership : Frank H. Nutter,
Wm. Robertson, Frank E. Reidhead.

Mr. W. S. Pardee presented a lecture on "Methods in Scientific Study,"
which proved to be of great interest to the Society.

Bills before the Legislature for State Aid for Good Roads and for
Licensing of Bicycles were called to the attention of the Club by the Presi-
dent. A committee was appointed to act with a committee from the Civil
Engineers' Society of St. Paul, and to take such action as seemed necessary
to push certain worthy bills through the Legislature. Prof. Wm. R. Hoag,
Geo. W. Sublette and W. S. Pardee are on this committee.

Edward P. Burch, Secretary.

As

SOCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Vol. XXVI. APRIL, 1901. No. 4

PROCEEDINGS.

Engineers' Society of Western New York.

Regular Meeting, April 2, 1901. — The meeting was called to order
at 8.30 p.m., the President in the chair. The following members present:
Messrs. Haven, Tutton, Buttolph, Knapp, Vander Hoek, Booz, Boardman,
Hooker, Ricker, Babcock. March, Fruaff, Knighton, Diehl, Norton, Rog-
ers, Bardol, Weston .and Caines. Visitor, Mr. Holmes, of the Engineers'
Society of Western Pennsylvania.

It was voted that the minutes of the last regular meeting be approved
as printed.

Mr.Tutton, member of the Board of Managers, made a report.

Application for membership was received from Mr. James Leland
Averill, and it was voted that the same be accepted and submitted to letter
ballot.

The Secretary reported that the Society had elected as Associates,
Messrs. John Feist and William Franklin.

The President said that there seemed to have been some misunder-
standing how to vote on the new form of ballot which was used for the
first time in January. It was unanimously voted by the Society to tem-
porarily suspend so much of the By-laws as relates to the reapplications
of persons not elected on letter ballots canvassed January 2, 1001, and
that the Secretary be instructed to send out letter ballots for Horace P.
Chamberlain and Eugene C. Hanavan.

Mr. March, the Committee appointed on the matter of the Society
joining the International Association for Testing Materials, made a re-
port, which was briefly discussed by Messrs. Ricker, Tutton, Knighton and
Diehl. It was then voted to accept the report and discharge the Com-
mittee. It was also voted that the subject matter be left to the discretion
of the Librarian, with power. .

The President reported that the Secretary had sent out a large num-
ber of the "Pan-American Circulars" to engineering societies in North
and South America, and to some parts of Europe. The Secretary read
several letters which had been received in response thereto, all of which

54 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

thanked the Society for their courtesy, and said they would avail them-
selves thereof.

The President then said it would be necessary to have a large Com-
mittee on Reception of Visiting Engineers. Thereupon it was unani-
mously voted that the President should appoint a Committee of seventeen
or more members as a Reception Committee.

The President appointed the following as such Committee:

George A. Ricker, Past President; Wallace C. Johnson, Past Presi-
dent; Thomas W. Symons, Honorary Member; Harry B. Alverson,
F. V. E. Bardol, George B. Bassett, W. A. Brackenridge, Newcomb
Carlton, David A. Decrow, Samuel J. Fields, William Franklin, E. F.
Gaskin, Marvine Gorham, Edward B. Guthrie, Richard Hammond, Wil-
liam C. Houck, S. M. Kielland, Clarence C. Lewis, Harry J. March, Dr.
Truman J. Martin, Charles M. Morse, Charles Mosier, Maurice B. Patch,
J. Vander Hoek, J. F Witmer, and all the members of the Executive
Board without special appointment.

Discussion was then had upon Mr. Ricker's paper on "Docks."

The President welcomed Mr. Holmes, of the Engineering Society
of Western Pennsylvania, who replied: In coming to the meeting of the
Society to-night I did not expect to be called upon to make a speech.
I appreciate the honor of being invited, and congratulate you on the
manner in which I have been received. If you treat every visitor the
same as you have treated me, they will surely come again. I have the
honor of belonging to the Western Pennsylvania Society of Engineers
and we have four hundred members in Pittsburg. We have a house, the
first floor of which is rented. We have our rooms on the second and
third floors, which contain the reception room, a library, a large hall
for meetings and other rooms. We would like to have a better house,
and are trying to get it. We have meetings every month, and in summer
have a trip by boat, and in the winter a banquet. We had a banquet in
February last, at which time we probably had 300 or 400 members with
their friends. Our membership is made of engineers from the Carnegie,
Jones & Laughlin, the Westinghouse interests and manufactories in the
city. We number among our members such men as William Metcalfe,
Thomas F. Johnson, of the Pennsylvania lines, etc. Our former Secretary
was Reginald D. Fessenden, who had charge of the Wireless Telegraphy
experiments for the Government.

I notice on your walls a number of photographs of Pittsburg. Among
them the skeleton of the Carnegie Building. Mr. Frick is building an
office building of about the same size. Back of this building is the Fifth
Avenue Hill. We hope in time to have this hump cut down, when they
will have two additional stories. On the lot there used to stand an old
stone church, built a great many years ago. The church was taken down,
each stone marked and put up in the same manner as in the original building.

If any of the members of this Society come to Pittsburg we would be
glad to have you make use of our rooms.

• The President. — What is the population of Pittsburg?

Mr. Holmes. — Pittsburg and Allegheny, 400,000. We should take in
more territory. We should take in McKeesport, Braddock, Wilkens and
East Pittsburg, when the population would be very much larger. Alle-
gheny, just across the river, should be in Pittsburg.

PROCEEDINGS. 55

The President. — How long has the Society been organized?

Mr. Holmes. — About twenty-one years at the last annual meeting, I
think.

The President. — You say you have 400 or 500 members?

Mr. Holmes. — I am not sure of the exact number, but I think it is
between these figures.

Mr. Norton. — I think at the January meeting, the President in-
cidentally said that we have no quicksand in Buffalo. Test borings were
taken by Mr. Caines for the purpose of finding out the soil to be en-
countered in building the abutments for a bridge on South Michigan
street. We found what could be called quicksand. This sand I dried
out and have tried it on a No. 50 sieve, and there was no perceptible
amount retained. On a No. 100 sieve there was Yz of 1 per cent, re-
tained and on a No. 200 sieve there was only about 25 per cent, re-
tained, making that sand, on a sieve test, finer than the tests for Port-
land cement. It was a pure quartz sand if that would be called quick-
sand. Is quicksand composed simply of quartz?

Mr. Tutton. — A great deal of information on this subject is con-
tained in a discussion which took place before the American Society on
Mr. Landreth's paper on the Erie Canal, and there was a great variety
of opinion — one member claiming there was no, quicksand unless it
possessed that peculiar property of "quaking," etc. The decision arrived
at was that quicksand was pure quartz sand in which the particles were
worn round, the actual fineness of the sand had nothing to do with it. I
am not sure that I am quoting these conclusions right, and would
refer you to that paper, giving the best information on quicksand outside
of McAlpine's writings on it.

Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

Boston, Mass., April 17, 1901. — A regular meeting of the Boston So-
ciety of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple, at 7.50
p.m. ; President Lawson B. Bidwell in the chair. Fifty-five members and
visitors present.

The record of the annual meeting of March 20, 1901, was read and ap-
proved.

Messrs. Charles M. Spofford, Herbert R. Stearns and Frank W. Upham
were elected members of the Society.

The Secretary reported for the Board of Government that it had voted
to continue the same special committees of the Society as last year, and that
the membership thereof had been selected as follows :

Committee on Quarters— Desmond FitzGerald, E. W. Howe, C. Frank
Allen, E. W. Bowditch and H. Bissell.

Committee on the Library — L. F. Cutter, F. P. McKibben, F. H. Fay,
A. D. Flinn and H. F. Bryant.

Committee on Excursions — J. R. Burke, Theodore Horton, J. Albert
Holmes, H. K. Higgins and H. D. Woods.

Members of the Board of Government, Association of Engineering So-
cieties— S. E. Tinkham. J. R. Freeman, Henry Manley, Fred. Brooks and
Dexter Brackett.

56 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

A committee, consisting of L. F. Rice, Desmond FitzGerald and Henry
Manley, was also appointed to petition the General Court for authority to
hold real and personal estate in excess of $20,000.

A communication was read from the Engineers' Society of Western New
York, extending a cordial invitation to the members of this Society to make
use of the rooms of the Engineers' Society of Western New York during the
Pan-American Exposition. The Secretary was directed to acknowledge the
receipt of the invitation and to express the appreciation of the Society.

Mr. W. W. Cummings read the paper of the evening entitled, "Subaque-
ous Tunnels for Gas Conduits." The paper was illustrated by stereopticon
views. In the discussion which followed, Mr. Carson spoke briefly of the
tunnels built for the Metropolitan Sewerage Works, and of the work which
had been accomplished on the East Boston Tunnel, and Mr. Saville of the
tunnel recently completed for the Metropolitan Water Board under Mystic
River at Chelsea North Bridge.

Mr. Robert A. Shailer, President of the Boston Tunnel Construction
Company, the contractors for the East Boston tunnel, gave some interesting
experiences of the use of compressed air in tunnel work, speaking particularly
of the work at Cleveland, Ohio.

Adjourned. S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.

Engineers' Club of Minneapolis.

The 143d regular meeting of the Club was held at 8 p.m., on April 15, at
its permanent quarters in the County Commissioner's rooms in the County
Court House.

Thirteen members and eight visitors present.

After the usual order of business was disposed of, a paper was pre-
sented by Col. J. T. Fanning, entitled "Canals and Canal Devices."

A second paper was presented by Mr. E. H. Tromanhauser, on "Grain
Elevator Construction."

These papers were of great interest to the members. The first was
historical in nature; the second was on up-to-date steel elevator design
construction, — a subject of great local interest.

The discussion of the papers was deferred one month.

Edward P. Burch, Secretary.

Engineers' Club of Cincinnati.

' 122D Regular Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio, March 21, 1901. — Dinner
was served at 6.15 p.m.

The regular meeting was called to order at 8 p.m., Mr. A. O. Elzner in
the chair, and fifteen members present.

Minutes of the meeting of February 21 were read and approved.

On ballot being taken, Mr. Alex. H. Miller was elected an Active
Member.

The following question was presented: —

What kind of explosives do you prefer for blasting in the following
kinds of material?

Solid rock, quarried for building.

PROCEEDINGS. 57

Solid rock, for removing only.

Loose rock and shale.

Hard pan and cemented gravel.

Loose sand and gravel.

On motion, the same was ordered announced for discussion at the
next meeting.

Mr. E. E. Russell Tratman, Resident Editor Engineering News, at
Chicago, who was visiting the city in the interest of his paper, and who
had been invited to attend the meeting, favored the Club with a few
remarks, principally on the subject of water works, as he had visited
during the day the work being done at California for the new plant
for the Cincinnati water supply.

The paper for the evening was read by Mr. M. D. Burke, on "Inland
Transportation in the Mississippi Valley."

J. F. Wilson, Secretary.

Engineers' Club of St. Louis.

524.TH Meeting, April 3, 1901. — Held at 1600 Locust street, at 8.20
p.m., Vice-President Kinealy presiding.

The minutes of the 523d meeting were read and approved.

Motion was made and carried to reconsider the action of the Club
at the last meeting, in which it was decided that the Executive Committee
be directed to pay the $100 assessed against the Engineers' Club by the
Public Welfare Commission, same to be paid out of the Entertainment
Fund. After considerable discussion of the matter, it was finally decided,
upon motion being carried, to lay the matter on the table.

The application for membership of Mr. Rudolph Howard Klauder
was read.

The subject of the evening was a paper by Mr. Louis Bendit, entitled
''Treatment of Feed Water for Boilers." Mr. Bendit paid particular
attention to the various methods of treating hard waters for use in boilers,
and presented considerable data upon the same.

Discussion was participated in by Messrs. Wheeler, Bryan, Freeman
and Professor Keiser, Professor of Chemistry at Washington University.

Adjourned to Library room, where lunch was served.

W. G. Brenneke, Secretary.

525TH Meeting, April 17, 1901. — Held at 1600 Locust street, at 8.20
p.m., President Spencer presiding.

Twenty-five members and five visitors were present.

The minutes of the 524th meeting were read and approved, the doings
of the 308th meeting of the Executive Committee were reported.

Mr. Rudolph Howard Klauder was duly elected to membership.

The matter of the assessment of $100 against the Club by the Public
Welfare Commission then came up.

Moved by Professor Van Ornum and seconded by Mr. Flad, "that the
matter be referred to the Executive Committee with power to act."

Mr. Wheeler spoke against the motion and advocated delaying action
until a better representation of members could be secured.

Mr. Reber spoke in favor of definite action at once, and was in favor
of making the appropriation.

58 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Mr. Flad then withdrew his second to Professor Van Ornum's
motion.

Mr. Reber then moved "that the St. Louis Engineers' Club contrib-
ute $100 to the Public Welfare Commission."

Mr. Flad seconded the motion.

President Spencer, the Club's representative on the Public Welfare
Commission, then spoke on the subject. He explained that Professor
Chaplin, when President, had appointed him as the club's representative
on the Commission, and how other representatives were appointed. He
also said it was thought at that time that the various members of the
Commission would need do nothing more than contribute their labor in
behalf of the Commission. In the meantime, it has been found that
considerable expense has accrued, and it is necessary to meet the same.
At the same time, he explained, the Club was not bound in any way to pay
the assessment made, but that he knew that three of the organizations ap-
pealed to had contributed, and most of the others had probably done so.

Mr. Reber then withdrew his motion.

Professor Van Ornum then moved "the Club ask for the money, the
same to be paid in such manner as the Executive Committee may decide."

Seconded by Mr. Bryan.

Amended by Mr. Flad "to refer the whole matter to the Executive
Committee."

The following letter was then read by the Secretary:

St. Joseph, Mo., April 15.
Mr. W. G. Brenneke, Secretary Engineers' Club, Fullerton Building, St.

Louis, Mo.

Dear Sir: I have your notice of the 13th, with regard to the next
meeting of the Club, to be held on Wednesday evening, and regret exceed-
ingly that I will not be able to be present to record my vote against the
diversion of any portion of the entertainment fund as a subscription to
aid the Public Welfare Commission in their work.

As I have not been present at any of the recent meetings of the Club,
I don't know anything about the Public Welfare Commission, nor its
purposes; they may be the best in the world, and it may be that it might
be well for the Club to subscribe to help out the work, though I am
inclined to think that the Executive Committee's recommendation that
the objects of the Club did not warrant their making an appropriation of
this character, is the correct view to take of the case, especially if the
Commission is, as I suppose, of a political character; of this, however, I
am not certain.

So far as the entertainment fund is concerned, this was set apart by
the Club when I was an active member, and I think when I was a member
of the Executive Committee, for a definite purpose; and my recollection
is that the bulk of the fund as it is now constituted, was a special gift to
the Club for the purpose of entertainment of distinguished engineers
visiting the city, and the Club certainly has no right to divert this gift
to any other use.

I will be very much obliged, if the matter comes up at the next meet-
ing and is discussed, if you will read my letter, or have it read, as a part
of the discussion, and as expressing the views of one of the Past Presi-
dents of the Club. Yours truly, Ben. L. Crosby.

PROCEEDINGS. 59

Amendment seconded and carried.

The subject of the evening was, "Some Notes on Roofs and Roofing
Materials."

Mr. Wheeler divided roofing into four great classes, — viz., Felts.
Woods, Metals and Silicates. The felts were divided into tarred felts,
gravel, ready rock and ruberoid. The woods were divided into boards,
slabs and shingles. The metals into corrugated iron, tin, lead and copper.
The silicates were divided into mud, slate and tiles.

The advantages and disadvantages of each kind, when laid in flat or
pitch roofs or both, together with costs and weights per square, and
durability, were discussed. The costs given did not include that of sup-
porting material.

There were also presented a number of samples of shingle and inter-
locking tiles, and a number of illustrations showing tile roofs.

The Chair announced his resignation, for business reasons, as a
member of the Committee on Filtration, and also announced the appoint-
ment of Professor W. S. Chaplin as his successor.

Adjourned to Library room, where lunch was served.

W. G. Brenneke, Secretary.

EVERY MEMBER OF THE

Association of Engineering Societies

should have and use

The Engineering Index.

Originally started by Prof. J. B. Johnson in the Journal of
the Association of Engineering" Societies, this great work has been
continued since 1895 solely by

The Engineering Magazine.

Prof. Johnson says : — " The work has been
far better performed by The Engineering Maga-
zine, both in scope and thoroughness, than I
was ever able to do."

The Engineering Index is published as a part of each num-
ber of The Engineering Magazine and also as a separate publica-
tion. In the latter form it is printed on only one side of the paper
for the use of those who wish to cut it up for card index purposes.
The subscription price of either publication alone is $3.00 a year;
but both publications will be sent to one address for $4.00 a
year. Send for sample copies.

THE ENGINEERING MAGAZINE,

120-122 LIBERTY STREET,

lonoon office:

222-225 STRAND, W. C. NEW YORK.

Ass

OCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Vol. XXVI. MAY, 1901. No. 5.

PROCEEDINGS.

Engineers' Club of St. Louis.

526TH Meeting, May i, 1901. — Held at 1600 Locust street, at 8.20 p.m.;
Vice-President Kinealy presiding.

Twenty members and five visitors present.

The minutes of the 525th meeting were read and approved, the minutes
of the 309th meeting of the Executive Committee were reported.

The application of Mr. Ernest C. F. Koken was read and referred to the
Executive Committee.

The subject of the evening was an account by Mr. Flad of his recent trip
to Europe, illustrated by lantern slides of kodak snap shots taken by him
during the trip. Among the views shown were many of the different filtration
plants which he visited, some of these plants being in successful operation
and some in process of construction, all of which were described in more or
less detail.

The following Committee on Prizes was announced : B. H. Colby, chair-
man ; J. A. Ockerson, Carl Gayler, W. A. Layman, E. R. Fish.

The Chair announced as the subject of the next meeting a paper by Mr.
Duncan F. Cameron on "Coal Supply of St. Louis and Adjacent Territory."

Adjourned to Library room, where refreshments were served.

E. B. Fay, Secretary pro tent.

52773. Meeting, May 15, 1901. — Held at 1600 Locust street; President
Spencer presiding.

Present, twenty-six members and six visitors.

The minutes of the 526th meeting were read and approved. The minutes
of the 310th meeting of the Executive Committee were reported.

The applications for membership of Messrs. Hans Carl Toensfeldt and
Arthur Tappan North were read.

Mr. Ernest C. F. Koken was elected to membership.

There being no miscellaneous business, attention was paid to the paper
of the evening, entitled "The Coal Supply of St. Louis and Adjacent Terri-
tory," by Mr. Duncan F. Cameron, superintendent of mines for Donk Bros.
Coal and Coke Co.

Mr. Cameron took up in a general way the extent of coal territory
tributary to St. Louis, giving areas of these coal measures, also their total
annual production and the consumption of bituminous coal by the city of St.
Louis.

62 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

He then discussed in detail what had been done in the way of washing
coal at the mines, the result of which is the elimination of the slate and iron
pyrites. The construction of a modern coal-washing plant was explained, the
same being illustrated on the screen. Mr. Cameron stated tests have been
made in office building steam plants in St. Louis and at other places showing
a saving of 20 per cent, to 28 per cent, of fuel bills by using washed coal in-
stead of unwashed coal.

It was also stated that a very fair quality of coke had been made from
washed Illinois coal in ovens which were not altogether of modern type.

Experiments, the object of which are to produce a good foundry coke
from Illinois coal, are being continued with considerable promise of success.

The discussion was participated in by Messrs. Bryan, Kinealy, Blaisdell,
Philip Moore and others.

Adjourned to Library room, where light refreshments were served.

W. G. Brenneke, Secretary.
i

Engineers' Club of Cincinnati.

123D Regular Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio, April 18, 1901. — Dinner was
served at 6.20 p.m.

The regular meeting was called to order at 7.30 p.m., with President
Jewett in the chair and thirteen members present.

Minutes of the meeting of March 21 were read and approved.

The question, presented at the last meeting for discussion, was taken up
and discussed by Messrs. Lilly, Nicholson, Jewett and others, giving their
experience and practice in the use of explosives for blasting for the removal of
different materials.

The following question was presented : What can be done to increase
the usefulness of the Cincinnati Engineers' Club? This was considered
very apropos and the Secretary was directed to announce it for discussion at
the next meeting.

Mr. Ward Baldwin read the paper for the evening, mostly extempore,
on the subject, "Present Practice in Specific Loading for Railroad Bridges,"
being a comparison and discussion of the loads called for by the specifications
of a large number of prominent railroads at the present time and of the
great increase in most of them over what was specific in the year 1894, when
he made a similar examination and comparison.

The subject was discussed by Messrs. Nicholson, Wulff, Read, Lilly,
Bogen, Jewett and others.

After a vote of thanks to Mr. Baldwin for his paper, the meeting ad-
journed. J. F. Wilson, Secretary.

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Regular Meeting, San Francisco, May 3, 1901. — Called to order at 8.30
p.m. by President Marx. The minutes of the last regular meeting were read
and approved.

Mr. A. S. Riffle, a civil engineer, was elected to membership upon a
regular count of ballots.

A posthumous paper by the late President, Geo. W. Percy, entitled
"Reflections of Vitruvius," was read by Mr. G. A. Wright.

Adjourned.

Otto von Geldern, Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS. 63

Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

Boston, Mass., May 15, 1901. — A regular meeting of the Boston Society
of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple, at 7.50
o'clock p.m.; President Lawson B. Bidwell in the chair. Total number
present, members and guests, including ladies, one hundred and nineteen.

The record of the last meeting was read and approved.

The Secretary read a communication from the Secretary of the Inter-
national Engineering Congress, to be held in Glasgow, in September
next, inviting this Society to select a delegate to attend the congress as
an honorary member.

On motion of Mr. Henry Manley, the communication was referred
to the Board of Government with authority to select a delegate if the
board deems it expedient.

On motion of Mr. Holmes, the thanks of the Society were voted to
Mr. Thomas W. Lawson for courtesies extended on the occasion of the
visit to his new yacht "Independence" at the Atlantic Works, East
Boston ; also to the Boston Transit Commission and to Mr. Robert A.
Shailer, President of the Boston Tunnel Construction Company, for
courtesies extended at visit to the works of the East Boston Tunnel on
May 4, 1901.

On motion of Mr. Higgins, the thanks of the Society were voted to
the Boston Elevated Railway Co. for courtesies extended this after-
noon on the occasion of the trip over the elevated lines of that company
in Charlestown and to its terminal station at Dudley street, Roxbury.

Mr. Frank W. Skinner, of the Engineering Record, was then introduced
and gave a very interesting lecture, entitled "Some Difficult and Curious
Foundations." The lecture was profusely illustrated by lantern slides.

On motion of Professor Swain, the thanks of the Society were voted

to Mr. Skinner for his entertaining and instructive lecture.

Adjourned.

S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.

EVERY MEMBER OF THE

Association of Engineering Societies

should have and use

The Engineering Index.

Originally started by Prof. J. B. Johnson in the Journal of
the Association of Engineering- Societies, this great work has been
continued since 1895 solely by

The Engineering Magazine.

Prof. Johnson says : — " The work has been
far better performed by The Engineering Maga-
zine, both in scope and thoroughness, than I
was ever able to do."

The Engineering Index is published as a part of each num-
ber of The Engineering Magazine and also as a separate publica-
tion. In the latter form it is printed on only one side of the paper
for the use of those who wish to cut it up for card index purposes.
The subscription price of either publication alone is $3.00 a year;
but both publications will be sent to one address for $4.00 a
year. Send for sample copies.

THE ENGINEERING MAGAZINE,

120-122 LIBERTYiSTREET,

LONDON office:
222-225 STRAND, W. C. NEW YORK.

LISTS OK MEMBERS

OF THE SOCIETIES COMPOSING THE

Association of Engineering Societies.

DECEMBER 31, 1900.

Members. Page.

Boston Society of Civil Engineers 501 1

Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland 216 26

Engineers' Club of St. Louis 210 37

Civil Engineers' Society of St. Paul 55 48

Engineers' Club of Minneapolis 20 51

Montana Society of Engineers 150 52

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast 145 59

Detroit Engineering Society 106 66

Engineers' Society of Western New York 78 72

Louisiana Engineering Society 76 76

Engineers' Club of Cincinnati 84 80

Total 1641

Lists of Members of the Associated
Societies* ,

Abbreviations for designating membership :

For Honorary Member Hon. Mem.

For Member Mem.

For Associate Member Assoc. Mem.

For Junior Member Jun. Mem.

Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

Adams, Edward P., Mem.,

Landscape Architect and Civil Engineer,

53 State street, Room 1104, Boston, Mass.
Adams, Henry S., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, S3 State street, Room 542, Boston, Mass.

Addicks, Walter R., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Boston, Bay State and other local gas companies,

24 West street, Boston, Mass.
Aiken, Charles W., Mem.,

Consulting and Contracting Engineer,

82 Washington street, New York, N. Y.
Aiken, Roy C, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 1059 Washington street, Boston, Mass.

Allard, Thomas T., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Fort Caswell, N. C.

Allen, C. Frank, Mem.,

Professor of Railroad Engineering, Mass. Inst, of Technology,

Boston, Mass.
Allen, Charles A., Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 44 Front street, Worcester, Mass.

Andrews, David H., Mem.,

Proprietor Boston Bridge Works, 70 Kilby street, Boston, Mass.
Appleton, Thomas, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, United States Life Saving Service,

17 State street, New York, N. Y.
Armstrong, Samuel G., Mem.,

Civil Engineer,

Amalinda, Upper Buitenkant street, Cape Town, South Africa.

Aspinwall, Thomas, Mem.,

Aspinwall & Lincoln, Civil_ Engineers,

120 Tremont street, Room 606, Boston, Mass.
Atwood, Joshua, 3d, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 158 Foster street, Brighton, Boston, Mass.

2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Atwood, Thomas C, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 362 Cross street, Maiden, Mass.

Badger, Frank S., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Continental Filter Co.,

35 Wall street, Room 24, New York, N. Y.
Bailey, Ernest W., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Somerville, Mass.

Bailey, Frank S., Mem.,

Assistant in Engineering Department, Massachusetts State Board
of Health, 140 State House, Boston, Mass.

Bailey, William M., Mem.,

Engineer, Eastern Expanded Metal Co.,

20 Pemberton Square, Boston, Mass.
Baker, William E., Mem.,

General Superintendent Manhattan Ry. Co.,

10 Dey street, New York, N. Y.
Baldwin, Loammi F., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 31 Milk street, Boston, Mass.

Bancroft, Lewis M., Mem.,

Superintendent of Water Works, Reading, Mass.

Barbour, Frank A., Mem.,

Snow & Barbour, Civil and Sanitary Engineers,

1 120 Tremont Bldg., Boston, Mass.
Barnes, Rowland H., Mem.,

Pierce & Barnes, Civil Engineers, 7 Water street, Boston, Mass.
Barnes, T. Howard, Mem.,

Civil and Municipal Engineer, 7 Water street, Boston, Mass.
Barnes, William T., Mem.,

Resident Engineer, Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern Ry.,

Washington, Ind.
Barrows, Harold K., Mem.,

With Metropolitan Water Board, 1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Barrus, George H., Mem.,

Expert and Consulting Steam Engineer,

20 Pemberton Square, Boston, Mass.
Bartlett, Arthur, Mem.,

Assistant in City Engineer's Office, City Hall, Lowell, Mass.

Bartlett, Charles H., Mem.,

Bartlett & Gay, Civil and Hydraulic Engineers, 852 Elm street,
Manchester, N. H., and 9 Concord Square, Boston, Mass.
Bartram, George C, Men.,

With Boston Bridge Works, 70 Kilby street, Boston, Mass.

Bateman, Frederic W., Mem.,

Parker & Bateman, Civil Engineers, Clinton, Mass.

Bateman, Luther H, Mem.,

Assistant to Engineer, Harbor and Land Commissioners,

131 State House, Boston, Mass.
Bayley, Frank A., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 133 Austin street, Cambridgeport, Mass.

Bement, Robert B. C, Mem.,

Civil Engineer and President Board of Water Commissioners,

St. Paul, Minn.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 3

Betton, James M., Mem.,

Henry R. Worthington Hydraulic Works, Brooklyn, N. Y.

Bidwell, Lawson B., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Eastern District, N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R.,

South Union Station, Boston, Mass.
Bigelow, James F., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Marlboro, Mass.

Bissell, H., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Boston and Maine Railroad, Boston, Mass.

Blake, Francis, Mem.,

Auburndale, Mass.

Blake, Percy M., Mem.,

Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, Bowers street, Newtonville, Mass.
Blodgett, George W., Mem.,

Electrical Engineer, B. and A. R. R., Boston, Mass.

Residence, Auburndale, Mass.
Blood, John Balch, Mem.,

Blood & Hale, Consulting and Designing Engineers, Equitable
Bldg., Boston, Mass.

Blossom, William L., Mem.,

Surveyor and Draftsman, 355 Washington street, Brookline, Mass.
Bolton, Edward D., Mem.,

Landscape Architect and Engineer,

224 W. Seventy-ninth street, New York, N. Y.
Borden, Philip D., Mem.,

City Engineer, P. O. Box 248, Fall River, Mass.

Botsford, Harry G., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Engineering Department, Boston.

Residence, 10 Nightingale street, Dorchester, Mass.
Bourne, Frank B., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer in charge of Park Department,

City Engineer's Office, Providence, R. I.
Bowditch, Ernest W., Mem.,

Landscape Gardener and Engineer,

60 Devonshire street, Boston, Mass.
Bowers, George, Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Lowell, Mass.

Boyd, James T., Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 60 State street, Boston, Mass.

Brackett, Dexter, Mem.,

Engineer, Distribution Department, Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Brackett, Wallace C, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Boston Elevated Ry. Co.,

101 Milk street, Room 1001, Boston, Mass.
Bradford, Laurence, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Millbrook, Mass.

Bradley, Harry C, Mem.,

Instructor, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.
Bradley, William H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 642 Exchange Bldg., Boston, Mass.

Branch, Ernest W., Mem.,

Engineer, Sewerage Commissioners, Adams Bldg., Quincy, Mass.

4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Bray, Charles D., Mem.,

Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Tufts College,

College Hill, Mass.
Breed, Charles B., Mem.,

Instructor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Residence, 12 George street, Lynn, Mass.
Brewer, Bertram, Mem.,

City Engineer, Waltham, Mass.

Brock, Nathan S., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 39 Parsons street, Brighton, Mass.

Brooks, Frederick, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 31 Milk street, Boston, Mass.

Brown, William M., Jr., Mem.,

Chief Engineer and Superintendent, Metropolitan Sewerage Works,

20 Pemberton Square, Boston, Mass.
Bryant, Henry F., Mem.,

French & Bryant, Civil Engineers,

334 Washington street, Brookline, and 4 State street, Boston, Mass.
Buck, Waldo E., Mem.,

President and Treasurer, Worcester Manfs. Mut. Ins. Co.,

S3 William street, Worcester, Mass.
Bullock, William D., Mem.,

Engineer in charge of Bridges and Harbor,

City Hall, Providence, R. I.
Burke, John R., Mem.,

Assistant to Engineer, Harbor and Land Commissioners,

131 State House, Boston, Mass.
Burley, Harry B., Mem.,

Civil Engin er and Inspector, Associated Factory Mut. Ins. Cos.,

31 Milk street, Boston, Mass.
Burr, Thomas S., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 53 State street, Boston. Residence, Melrose, Mass.
Burton, Alfred E., Mem.,

Professor of Topographical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Boston, Mass.

Buttolph, Benjamin G, Mem.,

Engineer, State Enterprise and American Mut. Fire Ins. Cos.,

819 Banigan Bldg., Providence, R. I.
Caldwell, Frederic A., Mem.,

First Assistant, City Engineer's Office, Woonsocket, R. I.

Carney, Edward B., Mem.,

City Engineer's Office, 39 Plymouth street, Lowell, Mass.

Carpenter, George A., Mem.,

City Engineer, yy Meadow street, Pawtucket, R. I.

Carr, Joseph R., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 466 Broadway, Chelsea, Mass.

Carson, Howard A., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Boston Transit Commission,

20 Beacon street, Boston, Mass.
Carter, Frank H., Mem.,

Engineer in charge of Street Work, City Engineer's Office,

Cambridge, Mass.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 5

Carter, Henry H., Mem.,

Consulting Engineer and President, Metropolitan Contracting Co.,

95 Milk street, Boston, Mass.
Carven, Christopher J., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Engineering Dept, 51 City Hall. Boston.

Residence, 34 Centre street, Dorchester, Mass".
Chace, George F., Mem.,

Superintendent, Water Works, Taunton, Mass.

Chamberlain, Edward G., Mem.,

Topographical Surveyor, Auburndale, Mass.

Chamberlain, William G. ^.. Mem.,

Bridge Engineer, B. and A. R. R., Boston.

Residence, Auburndale, Mass.
Chambers, Ralph H, Mem.,

Chambers & Hone, Consulting Engineers,

60 New street, New York, N. Y.
Chapman, William H., Mem.,

Waring, Chapman & Farquhar, Civil Engineers,

874 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Chase, John C, Mem.,

Chief Engineer, The Clarendon Water Works Co.,

Wilmington, N. C.
Cheever, Albert S., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Fitchburg Division, Boston and Maine Rail-
road, Boston, Mass.
Cheney, John E., Mem.,

Assistant City Engineer, City Hall, Boston, Mass.

Childs, Stephen, Mem.,

Deputy Street Com'r, Superintendent of Sewer Division,

City Hall, West Newton, Mass.
Clapp, Otis F., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Providence, R. I.

Clapp, Sidney K., Mem.,

Assistant in office of the Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Clapp, Wilfred A., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board, Clinton, Mass.
Clark, W. Lewis, Mem.,

Assistant, Middlesex Co., Engineer's Office.

50 Sacramento street, Cambridge, Mass.
Coffin, Freeman C, Mem.,

Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, 53 State street, Boston, Mass.

COGGESHALL, ROBERT C. P., Mem.,

Superintendent, Water Works, City Hall, New Bedford, Mass.
Cook, Byron I., Mem.,

Superintendent, Water Works, Woonsocket, R. I.

Cook, Mayo T., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Engineering Department,

65 City Hall, Boston, Mass.
Corthell, Arthur B., Mem.,

Resident Engineer, The Boston Terminal Co.,

220 South Station, Boston, Mass.

6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Corthell, Elmer L., Mem.,

Consulting Engineer,

Care Eddy, Hall & Cia, 399 Reconquista, Buenos Aires, Argen-
tine Republic, S. A.
Craib, Charles G, Assoc. Mem.,

General Contractor, 138 Pleasant street, Winthrop, Mass.

Craigue, Joseph S., Mem.,

With E. Worthington, Civil Engineer, Dedham, Mass.

Crane, Albert S., Mem.,

Chief Assistant Engineer, Michigan Lake Superior Power Co.,

Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.
Crowell, Alonzo K., Mem.,

Roadmaster's Clerk, N. Y., N. H. and H. R R.,

97 Cohannet street, Taunton, Mass.
Cummings, W. Warren, Mem.,

Engineer, N. E. Gas and Coke Co., Everett, Mass.

Cunningham, Fred'k H., Mem.,

Mining, Thistle Creek Northwest Territory,

Address, Box 49, Bolton, Mass.
Cuntz, William C, Mem.,

Engineer, London Office, The Pennsylvania Steel Company,

no Cannon street, London, E. C, Eng.
Currier, George C, Mem.,

Engineering Department, 60 City Hall, Boston, Mass.

Curtis, Greely S., Mem.,

Hydraulic Engineer, Boston Fire Department,

Bristol street, Boston, Mass.
Curtis, Joseph H., Mem.,

Landscape Engineer and Gardener,

85 Devonshire street, Boston, Mass.
Curtis, Louville, Mem.,

Roadmaster, Western Division, Boston and Maine Railroad,

354 Andover street, Lawrence, Mass.
Cutter, Charles R., Mem.,

Boston Elevated Railway, Elevated Lines,

101 Milk street, Boston, Mass.
Cutter, Louis F., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Engineering Department, 60 City Hall, Boston,
Residence, 15 Rangeley, Winchester, Mass.
Cutter, Roland, N., Mem.,

Engineering Department, 51 City Hall, Boston, Mass.

Davis, Charles Henry, Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 99 Cedar street, New York, N. Y.

Davis, Edmund S., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Boston Transit Commission,

59 Robinwood ave., Jamaica Plain, Mass.
Davis, Joseph P., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, American Bell Telephone Company,

113 West Thirty-eighth street, New York, N. Y.
Davis, Leonard H., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Boston Elevated Railway Company,

Residence, 10 Allston Terrace, Brighton, Mass.
Dean, Arthur W., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Nashua, N. H.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 7

Dean, Francis W., Mem.,

Dean & Main, Mechanical and Mill Engineers,

S3 State street, Boston, Mass.
Dean, Luther, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 23 Crocker Bldg., 14 City Square, Taunton, Mass.
Dennette, Francis A., Mem.,

Constructing Engineer, 155 Huntington ave., Boston, Mass.

De Wolf, John O., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, with W. B. Smith Whaley & Co.,

Tremont Bldg., Boston, Mass.
Dodge, Samuel D., Mem.,

With Metropolitan Water Board, 1 Ashburton Place, Boston.

Residence, 29 Russell street, Arlington, Mass.
Dorr, Edgar S., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Sewer Division, Street Dpartment,

30 Tremont street, Boston, Mass.
Drake, Albert B., Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Surveyor,

164 Williams street, New Bedford, Mass.
Drew, Joseph N., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 45 Milk street, Room 61, Boston, Mass.

Dunne, George C, Assoc. Mem.,

Manager, Portland Stone Ware Co.,

42 Oliver street, Boston, Mass.
Dwelley, Edwin F., Mem.,

Harris & Dwelley, Civil Engineers, 59 Exchange street,

Residence, 25 Baltimore street, Lynn, Mass.
Ellis, George A., Mem.,

Hydraulic Engineer, 158 Sherman street, Springfield Mass.

Ellis, John W., Mem.,

Civil Eng., 178 Devonshire street, Boston, and Woonsocket, R. I.
Ellis, S. Clarence, Mem.,

1750 Beacon street, Brookline, Mass.
Ellsworth, Emory A., Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 7 Main street, Holyoke, Mass.

Emerson, Guy C, Mem.,

Deputy Superintendent, Sewer Division, Street Department,

30 Tremont street, Boston, Mass.
Emigh, John H., Mem.,

City Engineer, North Adams, Mass.

Estey, Henry W., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, City Engineer's Office,

11 Page street, Maiden, Mass.
Evans, George E., Mem.,

Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, 95 Milk street, Boston, Mass.

Evans, Robert R., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Haverhill, Mass.

Ewing, William C, Mem.,

Chief Assistant and Clerk, The C. H. W. Wood Co.,

2380 Washington street, Boston, Mass.
Fales, Frank L., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Board of Trustees, Comm's of Water Works,

City Hall, Cincinnati, Ohio.

8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Farnham, Frederick W., Mem.,

Engineer in charge of Sewer Department, City Engineer's Office,

City Hall, Lowell, Mass.
Farnham, Irving T., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, West Newton, Mass.

Farnum, Loring N., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 53 State street, Boston, Mass.

Favor, William a., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, City Engineer's Office,

Chester street, Lowell, Mass.
Fay, Frederic H., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Engineering Department,

60 City Hall, Boston, Mass.
Felton, Burton R., Mem.,

Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, 1120 Tremont Bldg., Boston, Mass.
Felton, Charles R., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Brockton, Mass.

Ferguson, John N., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Fernald, Clarence T., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Boston Elevated Railway Company,

32 Malvern street, Melrose, Mass.
Fernald, George N., Mem.,

City Engineer and Commissioner of Public Works,

City Hall, Portland, Me.
Fitz, Charles F., Jr., Mem.,

With Metropolitan Park Commission, Watertown, Mass.

FitzGerald, Desmond, Mem.,

Department Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Fletcher, Austin B., Mem.,

Secretary, Massachusetts Highway Commission,

20 Pemberton Square, Boston, Mass.
Flinn, Alfred D, Mem.,

Prin. Office Assistant, Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Forbes, Arthur A., Mem.,

Engineer, Board of Public Works, City Hall, Pittsfield, Mass.
Folsom, Charles W., Mem.,

District Engineer of Sewers, 30 Tremont street, Boston, Mass.
Forbes, Fayette F., Mem.,

Superintendent, Water Works, Brookline, Mass.

Foss, Clifford, Mem.,

With Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Foss, William E., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Foster, Edward S., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 624 Tremont Bldg., Boston, Mass.

Foster, Willard M., Mem.,

Assistant, with Rice & Evans, 95 Milk street, Boston,

64 Grove street, Lowell, Mass.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 9

Francis, George B., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Rhode Island Suburban Electric Railway Co.,

113 Keene street, Providence, R. I.
Freeman, John R., Mem.,

President and Treasurer, Manfs., Rhode Island and Mechanics
Mut. Fire Ins. Cos., 812 Banigan Bldg., Providence, R. I.

French, Alexis H., Mem.,

Town Engineer, Town Hall, Brookline. Also of firm of French
& Bryant, Civil Engineers,
344 Washington street, Brookline, and 4 State street, Boston, Mass.
French, Edmund M., Mem.,

Assistant, with Metropolitan Water Board,

15 Morgan House, Clinton, Mass.
French, Frank B., Mem.,

Engineer and Superintendent for Board of Public Works,

4 Municipal Bldg., Woburn, Mass.
French, George L. R., Mem.,

Roadmaster, Eastern Division, Boston and Maine Railroad,

Beverly, Mass.
French, Heywood S., Mem.,

Boston Representative of the J. W. Bishop Co.,

53 State street, Room 408, Boston, Mass.
Frink, Harry A., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 23 Pinckney street, Boston, Mass.

Frizell, Joseph P., Mem.,

Hydraulic Engineer, 60 Congress street, Boston, Mass.

Fteley, Alphonse, Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 14 West 131st street, New York, N. Y.

Fuller, Andrew D., Mem.,

Engineer Expert, Massachusetts Managers, Paris Exposition,

15 Lawrence street, Wakefield, Mass.
Fuller, Frank E., Mem.,

With Metropolitan Water Board, 1 Ashburton Place, Boston.

Residence, West Newton, Mass.
Fuller, Frank L., Mem.,

Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, 12 Pearl street, Boston, Mass.

Fuller, Fred Vincent, Mem.,

Manager, Carson Trench Machine Co.,

16 Dorrance street, Charlestown, Boston, Mass.
Fuller, George W., Mem.,

Consulting Expert, Water Purification and Sewage Disposal,

220 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Fuller, William B., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 301 West Fifty-seventh street, New York, N. Y.
Gage, Herbert E., Mem.,

In Chief Engineer's Office, B. and A. R. R., Boston, Mass.

Gannett, Charles H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 1 102 Exchange Bldg., Boston, Mass.

Gay, Charles W., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 25 Exchange street, Lynn, Mass.

Gerrish, John H., Assoc. Mem.,

Agent, Eastern Dredging Co., 25 Congress street, Boston.

Residence, Melrose Highlands, Mass.

io ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Gerry, Lyman L., Mem.,

With Engineer Department, Massachusetts Highway Commission,

Stoneham, Mass.
Gleason, Walter A., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 58 Front street, Worcester, Mass.

Glover, Albert S., Mem.,

Secretary, Hersey Mfg. Co., 714 Tremont Temple, Boston, Mass.
Goodnough, Ben j. F., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Goodnough, X. H., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Massachusetts State Board of Health,

Room 140 State House, Boston, Mass.
Gould, John A., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Brookline and Dorchester Gas Co.,

24 West street, Boston, Mass.
Gowing, E. H., Mem.,

Engineer, 20 Pemberton Square, Boston, Mass.

Gray, Joseph P., Mem.,

. Vice-President, Boston Manfs. Mut. Fire Insurance Co., 31 Milk
street, Boston.

Residence, Hunter and Putnam street, West Newton, Mass.
Greene, Levi R.} Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, Walworth Manufacturing Company.

Residence, 35 Concord ave., Cambridge, Mass.
Grew, Herbert L., Assoc. Mem.,

With Waldo Bros., Contractors' and Builders' Supplies,

102 Milk street, Boston, Mass.
Griswold, Leon S., Mem.,

Mining Geologist, 238 Boston street, Dorchester, Mass.

Grover, Arthur C, Mem.,

City Engineer, Superintendent of Streets and Superintendent of
Water Works, 59 Evergreen ave., Rutland, Vt.

Grover, Edmund, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, East Walpole, Mass.

Grover, Nathan C, Mem.,

Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, Me.
Guppy, Benjamin W., Mem.,

Bridge Engineer, Maine Central Railroad, Portland, Me.

Gushee, Edward G, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 1942 North Twenty-third street, Philadelphia, Pa.
Haberstroh, Charles E., Mem.,

Assistant Superintendent, Sudbury Department, Metropolitan
Water Works, South Framingham, Mass.

Hale, Richard A., Mem.,

Principal Assistant Engineer, Essex Water Power Co.,

Lawrence, Mass.
Hale, Robert S., Mem.,

Steam and Electrical Engineer, 31 Milk street, Boston, Mass.

Hall, Frank E., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, with Sumner & Goodwin Co.,

287 Congress street, Boston, Mass.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. n

Hall, George H., Jr., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, N. E. Telegraph and Telephone Co., 104 Milk
street, Boston. Res., 5 New Millet street, Dorchester, Mass.
Hamilton, George W., Mem.,

District Engineer of Sewers, 30 Tremont street, Boston, Mass.
Hamlin, George H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Orono and Bangor, Me.

Hammatt, Edward A. W., Mem.,

Civil and Hydraulic Engineer,

53 State street, Boston, and Hyde Park, Mass.
Hardy, George F., Mem.,

Assistant Manager, Construction and Maintenance Department,
International Paper Co., 30 Broad street, New York, N. Y.
Hardy, George R., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer of Construction, N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R.,/

Forest Hills, Mass.
Harrington, David A., Mem.,

Engineer, Boston Electric Light Co.,

77 Ames Bldg., Boston, Mass
Harrington, Ephraim, Mem.,

Ephraim Harrington & Co., Civil and Consulting Engineers,

60 State street, Boston, Mass.
Harris, Charles, Mem.,

Agent of Barber Asphalt Paving Co.,

70 Kilby street, Room 68, Boston, Mass.
Harris, Isaac K., Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Surveyor, 59 Exchange street, Lynn, Mass.
Harrison, Christopher, Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Everett, Mass.

Hart, Frank S., Mem.,

Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan
Water Works, South Framingham, Mass.

Harwood, T. T. Hunter, Mem.,

United States Assistant Engineer, Rockport, Mass.

Hastings, Isaac W., Mem.,

Assistant in City Engineer's Office, West Newton, Mass.

Hastings, Lewis M., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Cambridgeport, Mass.

Haswell, Charles H, Hon. Mem.,

Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Consulting Engineer, Department
of Public Improvements,

Room 1803 Park Row Bldg., New York, N. Y.
Hatch, Arthur E, Mem.,

Manager, Bay State Dredging Co., 19 High street, Boston.

Residence, 43 Tennyson street, Somerville, Mass.
Ha wes, Louis E., Mem.,

Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, 751 Tremont Bldg., Boston, Mass.
Hawkes, Levi G., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Saugus, Mass.

Hawley, William C, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Massachusetts Topographical Survey Com-
mission, 60 Broadway, Taunton, Mass.

12 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Hayes, Henry W., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Fitchburg Division, Boston and Maine Rail-
road, Boston, Mass.
Hazelton, Charles W., Mem.,

Engineer and Treasurer, Turners Falls Co., Turners Falls, Mass.
Hazen, Allen, Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, St. Paul Bldg.,

220 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Heald, Simpson C, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 48 Congress street, Boston, Mass.

Hering, Rudolph, Mem.,

Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineer,

100 William street, New York, N. Y.
Herschel, Clemens, Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, East Jersey Water Co.,

2 Wall street, Room 54, New York, N. Y.
Hersey, Frederic M., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, with E. W. Bowditch,

60 Devonshire street, Boston, Mass.
Hews, Joseph R., Mem.,

Engineer Inspector, Charlestown Bridge,

18 Michigan ave., Dorchester, Mass.
Hicks, C. Atherton, Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Landscape Architect, Consulting Room, 501
Tremont Bldg., Boston. Drafting Room at Needham, Mass.
Higgins, Herman K., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R., 472 South Station,
Boston. Residence, 1799 Dorchester ave., Dorchester, Mass.
Hinckley, David, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Props., The Locks and Canals,

66 Broadway, Lowell, Mass.
Hodgdon, Frank W., Mem.,

Engineer, Harbor and Land Commission,

131 State House, Boston, Mass.
Hodges, Gilbert, Mem.,

Civil and Consulting Engineer, 60 State street, Boston, Mass.

Holden, Horace G, Mem.,

Superintendent, Pennichuck Water Works Co., Nashua, N. H.
Hollis, Ira N., Mem.,

Professor of Engineering, Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard
University, Cambridge, Mass.

Holmes, J. Albert, Mem., '

Engineer, Park Department, City Hall, Cambridgeport, Mass.
Holt, Arthur C, Mem.,

Treasurer, New England Structural Co.,

18 Post Office Square, Boston, Mass.
Hopson, Ernest G, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board, Clinton, Mass.
Horton, Arthur E., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan Park Commission,

14 Beacon street, Boston, Mass.
Horton, Theodore, Mem.,

With Metropolitan Sewerage Commission,

17 Everett street, Melrose, Mass.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 13

Hosmer, Francis E., Mem.,

Inspector, Engineering Department, Boston,

569 Broadway, South Boston, Mass.
Hosmer, Sidney, Mem.,

Electrical Engineer, Boston Electric Light Co.,

79A Ames Bldg., Boston, Mass.
Houghton, Charles E., Mem.,

Transitman, Sewer Department,

114 Erie street, New Dorchester, Mass.
Howard, Channing, Mem.,

Whitman & Howard, Civil Engineers,

85 Devonshire street, Boston, Mass.
Howard, John L., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Howe, Edward W., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Engineering Department,

65 City Hall, Boston, Mass.
Howe, George E., Mem.,

With Metropolitan Water Board, 1 Ashburton Place, Boston.

Residence, 20 Wesley Park, Somerville, Mass.
Howe, Horace J., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Rapid Transit Railroad Commission,

231 W. 125th street, New York, N. Y.
Howe, Will B., Mem.,

City Engineer, 5 Warren street, Concord, N. H.

Howland, Albert H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 60 Congress street, Boston, Mass.

Howland, Charles W., Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Surveyor, 44 Union street, Rockland, Mass.
Hubbard, Dwight L., Mem.,

Engineering Department, 51 City Hall, Boston, Mass.

Hultman, Eugene C, Mem.,

Inspecting and Auditing Engineer, West End Street Railway Sys-
tem, 101 Milk street, Boston, Mass.
Hunking, Arthur W., Mem.,

Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, 374 Stevens street, Lowell, Mass.
Hunter, Frederic S., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 5 City Hall, Boston, Mass.

Hunter, Harry G., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Hotel Denmark, Dorchester, Mass.

Hunter, William B., Mem.,

Inspector, Boston Elevated Railway Co.,

23 Weston street, Waltham, Mass.
Hyde, Charles G., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer. Improvement, Extension and Filtration of the
Water Supply,

Testing Station Spring Garden Pumping Station, Philadelphia, Pa.
Jackson, William, Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Boston, Mass.

Janes, Charles F., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Park Department,

City Engineer's Office, Providence, R. I.

14 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Jenney, Walter, Mem.,

Superintendent, Jenney Mfg. Co.,

55 G street, South Boston, Mass.
Johnson, Alpheus M., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Boston and Maine Railroad,

ioo South State street, Concord, N. H.
Johnson, Frank P., Mem.,

Tide Water Trap Rock, East Haven, Conn.

Johnson, James W., Mem.,

City Engineer, Riverside, Cal.

Johnson, Lewis J., Mem.,

Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Lawrence Scientific
School, Harvard University,

ioo Avon Hill street, North Cambridge, Mass.
Johnson, William S., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, State Board of Health,

Room 140, State House, Boston, Mass.
Jones, J. Edwin, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Jamaica Plain, Mass.

Keene, William F., Mem.,

City Engineer, 84 Cross street, Central Falls, R. I.

Keith, Herbert C, Mem.,

Assistant Bridge Lngineer, N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R.,

New Haven, Conn.
Kendall, Francis H, Mem.,

Civil Engineer for Middlesex County Commissioners,

Court House, East Cambridge, Mass.
Kettell, Charles W., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 53 State street, Room 11 12, Boston, Mass.
Kidd, Alexander L., Mem.,

District Engineer of Sewers, 30 Tremont street, Boston, Mass.
Kimball, George A., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Elevated Lines, Boston Elevated Railway Co., and
Member of Metropolitan Sewerage Commission,

101 Milk street, Boston, Mass.
Kimball, Harry L., Mem.,

In City Engineer's Office,

U. S. Engineer's Office, Custom House, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Kimball, Joseph H., Mem.,

Office Assistant, City Engineer's Office, West Newton, Mass.

King, George A., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Taunton, Mass.

KiNNicuTT, Leonard P., Mem.,

Professor of Chemistry, Worcester Polytechnic Institute,

Worcester, Mass.
Knapp, Frederick B., Mem.,

Principal of Powder Point School, Duxbury, Mass.

Knowles, Morris, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer in charge, Testing Station, Improvement and
Filtration of Water Supply, Spring Garden Pumping Sta-
tion, Philadelphia, Pa.
Lanza, Gaetano, Mem.,

Professor of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 15.

Lavis, Frederick, Mem.,

Engineer, Ur Expedition,

Care, United States Consul, Busrch, Turkey in Asia.
Lawton, Louis C, Mem.,

With Engineering Department, Boston and Maine Railroad,

Waverley, Mass.
Lawton, Perry, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 7 Savings Bank Bldg., Quincy, Mass.

Learned, Wilbur F., Mem.,

Superintendent of Streets and Sewers, Watertown, Mass.

Leavitt, Erasmus D., Mem.,

Mechanical and Consulting Engineer,

2 Central Square, Cambridgeport, Mass.
Lexand, George I., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer in charge of Sewers, City Hall, Lynn, Mass.
Libbey, Dana, Mem.,

In City Engineer's Office, West Newton, Mass.

Lincoln, Edwin H., Mem.,

Aspinwall & Lincoln, Civil Engineers,

120 Tremont street, Room 606, Boston, Mass.
Link, John William, Mem.,

With Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Locke, Frank L., Mem.,

Assistant Superintendent, Boston Rubber Shoe Co., Maiden, Mass.
Locke, Franklin B"., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, North Adams, Mass.

Lovis, Andrew M., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Massachusetts Highway Commission,

20 Pemberton Square, Boston, Mass.
Luther, William J., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Assistant Superintendent, Attleboro Gas Light Co.,

Attleboro, Mass.
Lyman, Edward, Mem.,

Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Lowell Mfg. Co.,

431 Wilder street, Lowell, Mass.
Lyman, John F., Mem.,

Consulting Engineer and Architect, P. O. Box 2295, Boston, Mass.
Lyon, Joseph P., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Hanover, Conn.

Macksey, Henry V., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Boston Water Department,

64 City Hall, Boston, Mass.
Macomber, Harry F., Mem.,

With Luther Dean, C.E., 187 County street, Taunton, Mass.

Main, Charles T., Mem.,

Dean & Main, Mechanical and Mill Engineers,

53 State street, Room 11 12, Boston, Mass.
Manahan, Elmer G., Mem.,

Assistant in office, Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Manley, Henry, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Engineering Department,

51 City Hall, Boston, Mass.

16 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Manley, Laurence B., Mem.,

Engineer, Massachusetts Telephone and Telegraph Co.,

185 Franklin street, Boston, Mass.
Marble, Arthur D., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Lawrence, Mass.

Martin, James W., Mem.,

Engineer to B. F. Smith & Bro., Water Supply by Artesian Well
Method, 38 Oliver street, Boston, Mass.

Marvell, Edward I., Mem.,

Civil and Mechanical Engineer,

81 Bedford street, Fall River, Mass.
Mason, Charles A., Mem.,

W. A. Mason & Son, Civil Engineers and Surveyors,

631 Massachusetts ave., Cambridgeport, Mass.
Mattice, Asa M., Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, no Locust street, Dover, N. H.

McAlpine, William H., Mem.,

Hydrographic Surveyor, United States Steamship "Ranger,"

18 Abbott street, Lawrence, Mass.
McClintock, William E., Mem.,

Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, 15 Court Square, Boston, Mass.

McInnes, Frank A., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Engineering Department, Boston.

23 Salcombe street, Dorchester, Mass.
McKay, William E., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Bay State Gas Co., and Boston Gas Light Co.,

10 Pearl street, Dorchester, Mass.
McKenna, James A., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, City Engineer's Office, Providence, R. I.
McKibeen, Frank P., Mem.,

Instructor in Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.
Metcalf, Leonard, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 14 Beacon street, Boston, Mass.

Mildram, Henry G, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Street Laying-Out Department,

23 Old Court House, Boston, Mass.
Miller, Edward F., Mem.,

Professor, Steam Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy, Boston, Mass.
Miller, Hiram A., Mem.,

Engineer, Reservoir Department, Metropolitan Water Board,

Clinton, Mass.
Miller, William L, Assoc. Mem.,

Contractor for Public Works, 17 Milk street, Boston, Mass.

Mills, Charles, Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Massachusetts Highway Commission,

20 Pemberton Square, Boston, Mass.
Mills, Frank H., Mem..

City Engineer, Woonsocket, R. I.

Miner, Franklin M., Mem.,

Engineering Department, Surveying Division,

27 Old Court House, Boston, Mass.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 17

Mirick, George L., Mem.,

Contracting Engineer, 17 Pleasant street, Maiden, Mass.

Mitchell, Henry, Mem.,

Nantucket, Mass.
Moore, Arthur C, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 100 Main street, Southbridge, Mass.

Morrill, George S., Mem.,

Division Engineer, N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R., Boston, Mass.
Morris, Frank H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 86 Hudson street, Somerville, Mass.

Morrison, Harry J., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board,

Box 13, West Boylston, Mass.
Morrison, John W., Mem.,

Manager, Branch Office Hornblower & Weeks,

S3 State street, Room 203, Boston, Mass.
Morse, Charles F., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan Park Commission,

12 Russell street, Maiden, Mass.
Morse, William P., Mem.,

Assistant City Engineer of Newton,

City Hall, West Newton, Mass.
Moses, John C, Mem.,

Chief Draftsman, Boston Bridge Works,

70 Kilby street, Boston, Mass.
Motte, M. Irving, Mem.,

Manager and Engineer, Boston office, Elektron Mfg. Co.,

143 Federal street, Boston, Mass.
Moultrop, Irving E., Mem.,

Constructing Engineer, The Edison Electric Illuminating Co.,

3 Head Place, Boston, Mass.
Nash, Henry A., Jr., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Weymouth Heights, Mass.

Nelson, George A., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, City Engineer's Office,

City Hall, Lowell, Mass.
Nelson, William, Mem.,

Engineer for A. B. Black, Concord and N. E. Agent, Climax Road
Machine Co., Laconia, N. H.

Nichols, Alfred E., Mem.,

With Swain Turbine and Mfg. Co.,

142 Wilder street, Lowell, Mass.
Nickerson, Addison C,

Engineer to Sewer Commissioners, Hyde Park, Mass.

Noele, Walter E., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Reservoir Commission,

City Hall, Fall River, Mass.
Norris, Walter H., Mem.,

Chief Engineer's Office, Boston and Maine Railroad,

Boston, Mass.
Nye, George H, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 323 Cottage street, New Bedford, Mass.

18 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Ober, Arthur J., Mem.,

United States Inspector on River and Harbor Work,

Newport, R. I.
Olmsted, John C, Mem.,

Landscape Architect, Brookline, Mass.

Palmer, Alfred T., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 60 Fairbanks street, Brighton, Mass.

Parker, Harold, Mem.,

Parker & Bateman, Civil Engineers, Clinton.

Residence, South Lancaster, Mass.
Parker, William, Mem.,

Division Engineer, B. and A. R. R.,

372 South Station, Boston, Mass.
Parsons, Charles S., Mem.,

Chief Clerk, Engineer Department, 50 City Hall, Boston, Mass

Patch, Walter W., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan Water Works,

Eastern ave., South Framingham, Mass.
Pearson, Charles A., Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Surveyor, 21 City Square, Charlestown, Mass.
Pearson, Fred. S., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Street Railway Co.,

Cable Bldg., 621 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Peck, Charles H., Mem.,

344 Blackstone street, Providence, R. I.
Peirce, Eugene E., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer with Massachusetts Topographical Survey
Commission, 138 State House, Boston, Mass.

Peirce, Frank A., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Greensboro, N. C.

Perkins, Clarence A., Mem.,

Engineer, N. E. Telegraph and Telephone Co.

Residence, 57 High street, Maiden, Mass.
Perkins, Theodore P., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Chief Engineer's Office, Boston and Maine
Railroad, Boston, Mass.

Pettee, Eugene E., Mem.,

Draftsman, with J. R. Worcester, C.E., Boston.

Residence, 269 Lowell ave., Newtonville, Mass.
Phillips, Henry A., Mem.,

Architect, 120 Tremont street, Room 503, Boston, Mass.

Pierce, Arthur G., Mem., ,

Superintendent of Stations, The Edison Electric Illuminating Co.,

3 Head Place, Boston, Mass.
Pierce, Herbert F., Mem.,

Pierce & Barnes, Civil Engineers, 7 Water street, Boston, Mass.
Pierce, William T., Mem.,

Engineer, Metropolitan Park Commission,

14 Beacon street, Boston, Mass.
Plimpton, Arthur L., Mem.,

Civil Engineer in charge of the Department of Civil Engineering of
the Bureau of Surface Lines, Boston Elevated Railway Co.,

101 Milk street, Boston, Mass.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 19

Polleys, William V., Mem.,

Engineer's Office, N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R.,

467 South Station, Boston, Mass.
Pope, Lemuel, Mem.,

Insurance Inspector, 118 State street, Portsmouth, N. H.

Pope, Macy S., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 31 Milk street, Boston, Mass.

Porter, Dwight, Mem.,

Professor of Hydraulic Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Boston, Mass.

Pratt, Dana M., Mem.,

Assistant with French & Bryant,

334 Washington street, Brookline, Mass.
Pratt, Daniel W., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer with E. W. Bowditch,

60 Devonshire street, Boston, Mass.
Pratt, N. Raymond, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, , Sudbury, Mass.

Pratt, Robert W., Jr., Mem.,

Assistant in Engineer's Office, Massachusetts, State Board of
Health. Residence, Waban, Mass.

Putnam, Charles E, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Park Department,

Jamaica Park, Jamaica Plain, Mass.
Reynolds, Henry J., Mem.,

City Engineer's Office, Providence, R. I.

Rice, George S., Mem.,

Deputy Chief Engineer, Rapid Transit Railroad Commission,

320 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Rice, James, Mem.,

Inspector, Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Co.,
125 Milk street, Room 40, Boston, Mass.
Rice, L. Frederick, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, American Bell Telephone Co.,

125 Milk street, Boston, Mass.
Rice, Otis D., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Hancock House, Quincy, Mass.

Rich, Isaac, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R., Boston.

Residence, 36 Walnut street, Somerville, Mass.
Richards, Robert H., Mem.,

Professor Mining Engineering and Metallurgy, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.

Richards, Walter H., Mem.,

Engineer of Water and Sewer Departments, New London, Conn.
Richardson, Thomas F., Mem.,

Engineer, Dam and Aqueduct Department, Metropolitan Water
Board, Clinton, Mass.

Rollins, James W., Jr., Mem.,

Of Holbrook, Cabot & Daly, Contractors, 1007 Tremont Bldg.,
Boston. Residence, West Roxbury, Mass.

20 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Robbins, Arthur G, Mem.,

Assistant Professor of Highway Engineering, Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology, Boston, Mass.
Robbins, Franklin H., Mem.,

With Metropolitan Water Board, I Ashburton Place, Boston.

Residence, 13 Waterhouse street, Cambridge, Mass.
Ross, Edward L., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Indian Orchard, Mass.

Ross, Elmer W., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Bridge Department, City Engineer's Office,

Providence, R. I.
Rowell, Frank B., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Boston and Maine Railroad,

14 Linwood Road, Lynn, Mass.
Sabine, Edward D., Mem.,

Engineer, Boston Pneumatic Transit Co.,

89 State street, Boston, Mass.
Safford, Arthur T., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Props., The Locks and Canals on Merrimack
River. 66 Broadway, Lowell, Mass.

Sampson, George T., Mem.,

Division Engineer, N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R.,

South Union Station, Boston, Mass.
Sanborn, Frank B., Mem.,

Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Tufts College.

Residence, 17 Sacramento street, Cambridge, Mass.
Sando, Will J., Mem.,

Manager, International Steam Pump Co., Brooklyn, N. Y.

Sargent, Alfred F., Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Notary Public, 425 Main street, Maiden, Mass.
Saville, Caleb Mills, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Saville, George G, Mem.,

178 Devonshire street, Boston, Mass.
Sawyer, Edward, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 60 Congress street, Boston, Mass.

Sawyer, Walter H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 60 Congress street, Boston Mass.

Schwamb, Peter, Mem.,

Professor of Mechanism, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

Boston, Mass.
Sedgwick, William T., Mem..

Professor of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

Boston, Mass.
Sellew, Edgar P., Mem.,

Assistant Surveyor in Street Laying-Out Department,

23 Old Court House, Boston, Mass.
Semple, William J. C, Mem.,

Street Laying-Out Department, Surveying Division,

2.^ Old Court House, Boston, Mass.
Servis, George O. W., Mem.,

Assistant in City Engineer's Office, City Hall, Somerville, Mass.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 21

Shaw, Edward S., Mem.,

Bridge and Consulting Engineer, 12 Pearl street, Boston, Mass.
Shedd, Edward W., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 146 Westminster street, Providence, R. I.

Shedd, George G., Mem.,

With Metropolitan Water Board, 75 Walnut street, Clinton, Mass.
Shedd, J. Herbert, Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, Providence, R. I.

Shepard, Walter, Mem.,

Chief Engineer, B. and A. R. R., Boston.

Residence, 79 Bloomfield street, Dorchester, Mass.
Sherman, Charles W., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Sudbury Department, Metropolitan Water
Works, 1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.

Sherry, Frank E., Mem.,

Hyde & Sherry, Civil Engineers and Surveyors,

15 Court Square, Boston, Mass.
Shirreffs, Reuben, Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Va. Electric Railway and Development Co.,

Richmond, Va.
Skinner, Fenwick F., Mem.,

Draftsman, Pencoyd Iron Works,

113 Rochelle ave., Philadelphia, Pa.
Sleeper, George E., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, P. O. Box 3198, Boston, Mass.

Smilie, Edward S., Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Surveyor, Newton, Mass.

Smith, Chester W., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer with Metropolitan Water Board,

373 Chestnut street, Clinton, Mass.
Smith, Melvin B., Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Surveyor, 26 Hildreth Bldg., Lowell, Mass.

Smith, Sidney, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 91 Maple street, West Roxbury, Mass.

Snow, F. Herbert, Mem.,

Snow & Barbour, Civil and Sanitary Engineers,

1 120 Tremont Bldg., Boston, Mass.
Snow, Franklin A., Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Contractor, Brookline, Mass.

Snow, J. Parker, Mem.,

Bridge Engineer, Boston and Maine Railroad,

Boston, Mass.
Sondericker, Jerome, Mem.,

Associate Professor of Applied Mechanics, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Boston, Mass.

Sonne, Otto, Mem.,

Civil Engineer,

68 Devonshire street (P. O. Box 3051), Boston, Mass.
Soper, George A., Mem.,

Engineer and Chemist, 29 Broadway, New York, N. Y.

Spalding, Frederic P. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Engineering Department,

60 City Hall, Boston, Mass.

22 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Spear, Walter E., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 814 Banigan Bldg., Providence, R. I.

Spofford, Nelson, Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Surveyor for Massachusetts on her Northern
Boundary, 14 Water street, Haverhill, Mass.

Stanford, Homer R., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, United States Navy,

Naval Training Station, San Francisco, Cal.
Stark, William E., Mem.,

Instructor of Physics, Rindge Manual Training School,

26 Whittier street, Cambridge, Mass.
Stearns, Edward B., Mem.,

Contracting Engineer, American Bridge Co.,

Chamber of Commerce Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.
Stearns, Frederic P., Me .,

Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board,

1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Stephenson, Frank H, Mem.,

With Metropolitan Water Board, 1 Ashburton Place, Boston-
Residence, 51 Aldrich street, Jamaica Plain, Mass.
Stevens, Harold C, Mem.,

Office Assistant, Engineering Department, Metropolitan Water
Board, 1 Ashburton Place, Boston.

Residence, Braintree, Mass.
Stevens, Walter C, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 541 Main street, Melrose, Mass.

Stoddard, George C, Mem.,

Civil and Sanitary Engineer,

215 West 125th street, New York, N. Y.
Sto^y, Isaac M., Mem.,

Engineer, N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R.,

21 Linden ave., Somerville, Mass.
Stratton, George E., Mem.,

Draftsman, United States Engineers' Office.

Residence, 145 West Newton street, Boston, Mass.
Street, Leonard L., Mem.,

With Boston Transit Commission,

121 Stoughton street, Dorchester, Mass.
Swain, George F., Mem.,

Professor of Civil Engineering, Masschusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, and Engineer, Massachusetts Railroad Commissioners,

Boston, Mass.
Sweet, Kilburn S., Mem.,

Instructor in Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.
Symonds, Henry A., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer with Taylor & Tyler, Box 98, Belmont Mass.
Taber, James C. S., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 31 Milk street, Room 315, Boston, Mass.

Taylor, Edwin A., Mem.,

Civil Engineer with L. A. Taylor, C.E.,

10 Dean street, Worcester, Mass.
Taylor, Gordon H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, mo Tremont Bldg., Boston, Mass.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 23

Taylor, Lucian A., Mem., .

Civil Engineer and Contractor, 719 Tremont Bldg., Boston, Mass.
Temperley, Charles, Mem.,

Assistant in City Engineer's Office,

„, , , 7 High street, Medford, Mass.

Thompson, Sanford E., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Newton Highlands, Mass.

Thorndike, Sturgis H., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Engineering Department,

60 City Hall, Boston, Mass.
Tighe, James L., Mem.,

City Engineer, Holyoke, Mass.

Tilden, James A., Mem.,

General Manager, Hersey Mfg. Co., South Boston, Mass.

Tingley, Richard H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 75 Westminster street, Providence, R. I.

Tinkham, S. Everett, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Engineering Department,

60 City Hall, Boston, Mass.
Tomlinson, Alfred T., Mem.,

Consulting and Division Engineer, Boston Elevated Railway Co.,

4 Westminster ave., Roxbury, Mass.
Titus, John E.,

Coolidge & Titus, Landscape Architects,

53 State street, Room 720, Boston, Mass.
Treadwell, Edward D., Mem.,

Surveyor, Engineering Department, Maiden,

124 Linden ave., Maiden, Mass.
Tripp, Oscar H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Rockland, Me.

Tucker, Francis C, Mem.,

City Engineer, Deadwood, S. D.

Tucker, Lester W., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Boston and Maine Railroad, Boston, Mass.

Turner, Daniel L., Mem.,

Instructor in Topographical Engineering, Lawrence Scientific
School, Cambridge, Mass.

Turner, Edmund K., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 442 Exchange Bldg., Boston, Mass.

Varney, Henry A., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Room 2, Town Hall, Brookline, Mass.

Vaughan, Louis B., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Boston Elevated Railway Co.

Residence, 100 Pembroke street, Boston, Mass.
Vickery, Gileert S., Mem.,

With Pennsylvania Steel Co., 1222 Market street, Harrisburg, Pa.
Vose, George L., Hon. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Paris, Me.

Waitt, Charles G., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Waitt's Block, Maiden, Mass.

Wales, Frederick N., Mem.,

Clerk of Board of Harbor and Land Commissioners,

131 State House, Boston, Mass.

24 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Walker, Elton D., Mem.,

Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Pennsylvania State Col-
lege, State College, Pa.
Wallace, Chester J., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board,

I Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Wallace, Joseph H., Mem.,

Tower & Wallace, Mill Architects and Hydraulic Engineers,

309 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Walworth, Arthur C, Mem.,

President, Walworth Construction and Supply Co.,

100 Pearl street, Boston, Mass.
Warren, George M., Mem.,

With L. E. Hawes, C.E., 751 Tremont Bldg., Boston, Mass.

Wason, Leonard C, Mem.,

President, Aberthaw Construction Co., 7 Exchange Place, Boston.
Residence, 199 Harvard street, Brookline, Mass.
Waterman, Frank E., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 86 Weybosset street, Providence, R. I.

Watson, William, Mem.,

Secretary, American Academy of Arts and Sciences,

107 Marlborough street, Boston, Mass.
Webb, DeWitt C. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 53 State street, Room 542, Boston, Mass.

Webber, William O, Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, Room 432, 53 State street, Boston, Mass.

Webber, Winslow L., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Gloucester Mass.

Wellington, Arthur J., Assoc. Mem.,

Manager, Gates Iron Works, and Atlantic Dynamite Co.,

237 Franklin street, Boston, Mass.
Wells, Charles E., Mem.,

Division Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board,

55 Prescott street, Clinton, Mass.
Wescott, Frank T., Mem.,

Superintendent of Streets, North Attleborough, Mass.

Weston, Edmund B., Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 86 Weybosset street, Providence, R. I.

Wetherbee, George A., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Maiden, Mass.

Wheeler, Bertrand T., Mem.,

Superintendent of Streets, 47 City Hall, Boston, Mass.

Wheeler, William, Mem.,

Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, 14 Beacon street, Boston, Mass.

White, Hartley L., Mem.,

White & Wetherbee, Civil Engineers, offices in Braintree, Brock-
ton and at 170 Summer street, Boston.
Whiting, Russell H., Mem.,

Assistant with French & Bryant,

334 Washington street, Brookline, Mass.
Whitney, Frank O., Mem.,

Chief of Surveying Division, Street Laying-Out and Engineering
Departments, 25 Old Court House, Boston, Mass.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 25

Whitney, George E., Mem.,

With Boston Gas Light Co., 24 West street, Boston, Mass.

Whitney, Orville J., Mem.,

With Boston Electric Ry. Co., 32 Franklin street, Medford, Mass.
Whitten, Ernest P., Mem.,

Civil Engineer with Aspenwall & Lincoln,

49 Irving street, West Roxbury, Mass.
Whittier, Charles G, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 20 Berkeley street, Maiden, Mass.

Wiggin, Ernest W., Mem.,

With Bridge Department, N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R.,

New Haven, Conn.
Wiggin, Thomas H., Mem.,

With Metropolitan Water Board, 1 Ashburton Place, Boston.

154 Mountain ave., Maiden, Mass.
Wilkes, Charles M., Mem.,

Sanitary Engineer, 1142 The Rookery, Chicago, 111.

Williams, William F., Mem.,

City Engineer, 2 Court street, New Bedford, Mass.

Wilson, Herbert A., Mem.,

Engineering Department, 60 City Hall, Boston, Mass.

Winslow, Frederic I., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Engineering Department,

49 City Hall, Boston, Mass.
Winsor, Frank E., Mem.,

With Metropolitan Water Board,

82 Union ave., South Framingham, Mass.
Wood, George W., Mem.,

Agent, Best Manufacturing Co., 31 Milk street, Boston, Mass.

Wood, Henry B., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Topographical Survey Commission,

138 State House, Boston, Mass.
Wood, Irving S., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer in charge of Water Department,

City Engineer's Office, Providence, R. L
Woodfall, J. L., Mem.,

Civil and Sanitary Engineer, 15 Court Square, Boston, Mass,

Woods, Henry D., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 99 Highland street, West Newton, Mass.

Woodward, M. Grant, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Cambridge Bridge,

374 Cambridge street, Boston, Mass.
Worcester, Joseph R., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 53 State street, Boston, Mass.

Wyman, Alfred M., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 836 Main street, Waltham, Mass.

Young, E. Elbert, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Auburndale, Mass.

26 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland.

Allen, George I., B.S., Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Cleveland City Forge and Iron Co.,

84 Kennard street, Cleveland.
Allen, Luther, Assoc. Mem.,

President Adams Bag Co., 1695 Euclid ave., Cleveland.

Allen, Walter Morrison, Act. Mem.,

Superintendent for Warner & Swasey, 40 Spangler ave., Cleveland.
Andrews, Horace E., Ph.B., Act. Mem.,

Director, The Cleveland Electric Railway Co.,

The Cuyahoga, Cleveland.
Baackes, Michael, Act. Mem.,

Vice-President Baackes Wire Nail Co.,

712 Willson ave., Cleveland.
Balkwill, Stephen, Jr., Assoc. Mem.,

Foreman, The Cleveland Frog and Crossing Co.,

8 Van Ness ave., Cleveland.
Barber, Clarence M., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Constructing Engineer, Semet-Solvay Co., Detroit, Mich.

Bardons, George C, Act. Mem.,

Of Bardons & Oliver, Tool Manufacturers,

Case ave. and Hamilton street, Cleveland.
Barnett, James, Act. Mem.,

President First National Bank, President The Geo. Worthing-
ton Co., 697 Euclid ave., Cleveland.

Barnum, Frank S., Act. Mem.,

Architect, New England Bldg., Cleveland.

Barren, Henry A., M.E., Act. Mem.,

Master Mechanic, American Steel and Wire Co.,

201 Miles ave., Cleveland.
Bartol, George, S.B., Act. Mem.,

General Manager The Otis Steel Co., Ltd., Cleveland.

Beardsley, Joseph C, Act. Mem.,

Second Assistant Engineer, Water Works Division, Department
of Public Works, 354 Superior street, Cleveland.

Benjamin, Charles H., M.E., Act. Mem.,

Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Case School of Applied
Science, 89 Adelbert street, Cleveland.

Bever, John J., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Foundry, The Otis Steel Co., Ltd.,

97 Scott street, Cleveland.
Bidle, William S., B.S., M.E., Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Manager Turnbuckle Depa.tment, Cleveland
City Forge and Iron Co., 955 Detroit street, Cleveland.

Bidwell, Jason A.. Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Union Steel Screw Co.,

139 Kensington street, Cleveland.
Bishop, Albert C, Assoc. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, The Independent Ice Co.,

193 Sawtell ave., Cleveland.

CIVIL ENGINEERS' CLUB OF CLEVELAND. 27

Bissell, Frank E., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad,

Ashtabula, Ohio.
Blackwell, Charles, Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad,

40 Oak Park street, Cleveland.
Blunt, William T Cor. Mem.,

U. S. Assistant Engineer, U. S. Eng. Office, Toledo, Ohio.

Boalt, Eugene E., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 45 Outhwaite ave., Cleveland.

Bogardus, William B., Act. Mem.,

Engineer, with The Osborn Co., 509 Osborn Bldg., Cleveland.

Bone, W. H., Cor. Mem.,

General Manager The Ironsides Co., Columbus, Ohio.

Bowler, George H., Assoc. Mem.,

Machinery Dealer, partner Reade & Bowler,

513 Williamson Bldg., Cleveland.
Bowler, Noadiah P., Act. Mem.,

Foundryman, firm of Bowler & Co., 14 Winter street, Cleveland.
Bright, Fred. E., Assoc. Mem.,

Superintendent of The Rogers Typograph Co.,

145 Cannon street, E. C, London, Eng.
Brown, Alexander E., C.E.. M.E., Act. Mem.,

Vice-President and General Manager The Brown Hoisting and
Conveying Machine Co., 1151 Prospect street, Cleveland.

Brown, Fayette, Act. Mem.,

President The Brown Hoisting and Conveying Machine Co.,
Chairman Stewart Iron Mfg. Co., Ltd., President The Na-
tional Chemical Co., Perry-Payne Bldg., Cleveland.
Brown, T. Morris, A.B., Act. Mem.,

Electrical Engineer, with The Brown Hoisting and Conveying Ma-
chine Co., 583 Sibley street, Cleveland.
Brown, Wendell P., Act. Mem.,

Engineer, The King Bridge Co., 314 Hough ave., Cleveland.

Burns, William H, Act. Mem.,

Firm of M. F. Bramley & Co., 97 Carroll street, Cleveland.

Cadwell, Charles A., B.S., Act. .Mem.,

Draftsman, Cleveland Electric Railway Co.,

1250 Curtiss ave., Cleveland.
Carpenter, Allan W., B.S., C. E., Cor. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, New York Central and Hudson River Railroad,
502 Grand Central Station, New York city.
Carter, William J., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent of Construction, Quartermaster's Department,

Ft. Preble, Portland, Me.
Chamberlin, Frank H., Act. Mem.,

Proprietor and Manager Cleveland Facing Mill Co.,

49 Knox street, Cleveland.
Chapin, Loomis E., C.E., Act. Mem.,

City Civil Engineer, Canton, Ohio.

Chisholm, William, Act. Mem.,

Former President Cleveland Rolling Mill Co.,

779 Euclid ave., Cleveland.

28 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Chisholm, William, Sr., Act. Mem.,

General Manager Chisholm St el Shovel Works,

364 Case ave., Cleveland.
Clark, William C, Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 112 Twenty-third ave., Cleveland.

Cobb, Philip L., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 2509 Euclid ave., Cleveland.

Coffin, John N., Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 312 Perry-Payne Bldg., Cleveland.

Comstock, Charles W., Act. Mem.,

Purchasing Agent, Wellman-Seaver Eng. Co.,

1405 New England Bldg., Cleveland.
Cooke, Edward C, C.E., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 44 Hough Place, Cleveland.

Corlett, John F., Assoc. Mem.,

Iron and Steel Commission, 409 Perry-Payne Bldg., Cleveland.
Covert, John Sterling, Act. Mem..

Draftsman, The King Bridge Co., 3 Isham Court, Cleveland.

Cowles, Walter L., C.E., Ph.B., Act. Mem.,

Bridge and Structural Engineer, The Brown Hoisting and Con-
veying Machine Co., Cleveland.
Cowles, William B., Act. Mem.,

W. B. Cowles <x Co., Lake and Wason streets, Cleveland.
Cox, Jacob Dolson, Jr., Act. Mem.,

Proprietor of Cleveland Twist Drill Co.,

Lake and Kirtland streets, Cleveland.
Cromwell, John C., Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Garrett-Cromwell Engineering Co.,

589 Case ave., Cleveland.
Culley, George, Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 4 Redell street, Cleveland.

Culley, John L., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Civil and Landscape Engineer, 33 Blackstone Bldg., Cleveland.

Dailey, Charles I., Act. Mem.,

Master Mechanic, American Steel and Wire Co., Lake Shore Dis-
trict. 281 Hough ave., Cleveland.
Davis, Charles H, C.E., Act. Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 99 Cedar street, New York city.

De Forest, Albert T., Act. Mem.,

Manager American Steel and Wire Co.,

2677 Euclid ave., Cleveland.
De La Mater, Stephen T., Act. Mem.,

With The Osborn Co., Civil Engineers,

509 Osborn Bldg., Cleveland.
Dercum, Otto, Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 38 City Hall, Cleveland.

Dodd, Samuel T., E.E., Cor. Mem.,

Electrical Engineer, Link Belt Machinery Co.,

Thirty-ninth street and Stewart ave., Chicago, 111.
Dunham, H. F., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 2 Wall street, New York city.

CIVIL ENGINEERS' CLUB OF CLEVELAND. 29

Dutton, Chas. R, Act. Mem.,

Science Instructor, West High School,

^ ,„ „ 349 Franklin ave., Cleveland.

Dyer, Harold P., Act. Mem.,

Constructing Engineer for E. H. Dyer & Co., builders of Sugar

Machinery, 705 New England Bldg., Cleveland.

Estep, Josiah M., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Department Public Works,

51 Bell ave., Cleveland.
Evers, William H., Act. Mem.,

County Surveyor, Cuyahoga county, 70 Jersey street, Cleveland.
Fairfield, Howard P., Act. Mem.,

Head Instructor in Machine Practice, Worcester Polytechnic In-
stitute, Worcester, Mass.
Falding, Frederick J., Cor. M m.,

Consulting Chemical Engineer, 45 Broadway, New York city.
Faragher, Burton P., Act. Mem.,

Engineer, Water Works Department,

• 63 Hampden street, Cleveland.
Foote, Andrew W.,

Machine Tool Manufacturer, 555 Sibley street, Cleveland.

Force, Cyrus G., Jr., Cor. Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, Succassunna, Morris Co., N. J.

Fuller, Harry, Act. Mem.,

Engineer, The King Bridge Co., 21 Gale ave., Cleveland.

Galvin, Archie J., Act. Mem.,

Engineer, Intercepting Sewer Department,

849 Lorain street, Cleveland.
Garrett, William, Act. Mem.,

Manager Garrett-Cromwell Engineering Co.,

46 Dorchester ave., Cleveland.
Gibbs, Harley B., Act. Mem.,

Treasurer The King Bridge Co., Cleveland.

Gobeille, Joseph Leon, Act. Mem.,

President The Gobeille Pattern Co.,

Leonard and Winter streets, Cleveland.
Goffing, Charles, Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Water Works Department,

City Hall, Cleveland.
Green, Bernard L., Act Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Member of The Osborn Co.,

509 Osborn Bldg., Cleveland.
Greene, Stanley R., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Mechanic with The Brown Hoisting and Conveying
Machine Co., 743 Willson ave., Cleveland.

Handy, Edward A., B.S., Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway,

L. S. and M. S. Railway Bldg., Cleveland.
Hanlon, William B., Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Cleveland, Lorain and Wheeling Railroad Co.,
Mining Engineer for Coal Companies,

825 Hickox Bldg., Cleveland.

[8]

30 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Harman, Ralph A., Ph.B., Act Mem.,

Manufacturer of Forgings, with Cleveland City Forge and Iron
Co., Cleveland.

Harrington, Ferdinand F., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 509 Osborn Bldg., Cleveland.

Hart, Emmett E., Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad,

98 Burt street, Cleveland.
Hatch, James N., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Construction, United States Public Buildings,

Streator, 111.
Haupt, Chas. H., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 73 Edgewood Place,- Cleveland.

Henderer, William O., Act. Mem.,

Member of The Osborn Co., Civil Engineers,

509 Osborn Bldg., Cleveland.
Herman, Ludwig, M.E., Act. Mem.,

Master Mechanic, The Mechanical Rubber Co.,

120 Second ave., Cleveland.
Hill, Harold H., Act., Mem.,

Agent, Erie City Iron Works, 786 Genesee ave., Cleveland.

Hobbs, Perry L., B.S., Ph.D., Act. Mem.,

Professor of Chemistry, Western Reserve Medical College,

Cleveland.
Hoffman, Robert, Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, City Civil Engineer's Office, City Hall,

55 Osborn street, Cleveland.
Hoit, Lehman B., Act. Mem.,

Hydraulic Engineer, Ohio Sales Manager, Henry R. Worthington,

582 E. Prospect street, Cleveland.
Honsberg, August A., Act. Mem.,

Draftsman, Department Public Works,

309 City Hall, Cleveland.
Hopkinson, Charles W., B.S., Act. Mem.,

Architect, 50 Euclid ave., Cleveland.

Horner, Edward, Act. Mem.,

Draftsman, City Civil Engineer, 43 Lena ave., Cleveland.

Howe, Charles S., Ph.D., Act. Mem.,

Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Case School of Ap-
plied Science, Cleveland.
Hyde, A. Lincoln, Ph.B., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Engineer, American Bridge Co. 100 Broadway, New York city.
Hynd, Alexander, Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Great Lakes Register,

94 Courtland street, Cleveland.
Jackson, Ernest S., Act. Mem.,

County Engineer, Lorain Co., Elyria, Ohio.

Johnston, Albert W., Act. Mem.,

General Superintendent New Yc.k, Chicago and St. Louis Rail-
road, 424 Hickox Bldg., Cleveland.
Johnston, Arthur C, B.A.Sc, Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Lorain Steel Co., Lorain, Ohio.

CIVIL ENGINEERS' CLUB OF CLEVELAND. 31

Jones, Harry Ross, Assoc. Mem.,

With The Osborn Co., Civil Engineers,

517 Sibley street, Cleveland.
Jones, Wyndham C, Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer Cleveland and Eastern Railroad, President Stand-
ard Contracting Co., President W. A. McGillis Dredging Co.,

57 Wade Bldg., Cleveland.
Judson, C. A., Cor. Mem.,

Erie County Safe Deposit and Abstract Co.,

232 Columbus ave., Sandusky, Ohio.
King, James A., Act. Mem.,

President The King Bridge Co., 1325 Euclid ave., Cleveland.

Kingsley, Marvin W., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Water Works, 354 Superior street, Cleveland.

Kohlmetz, Geo. W., Assoc. Mem.,

International Range and Mfg. Co., Ashtabula, Ohio.

Lander, Frank R., B.S., Act. Mem.,

County Draftsman, 321 Marcy ave., Cleveland.

Lane, Edwin G., Act. Mem.,

Engineer, Cleveland Terminal and Valley Railroad,

B. and O. Passenger Station, Cleveland.
Langley, John W., B.S., Ph.D., Act. Mem.,

Professor Electrical Engineering, Case School of Applied Science,

Cleveland.
Larned, Joshua B., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer. The King Bridge Co., 13 Isham Court, Cleveland.
Leeper, John B., C.E., Cor. Mem.,

Engineer, with Keystone Bridge Works, Pittsburg, Pa.

Le Pontois, Leon J., B.S., Act. Mem.,

Electrical Engineer, Winton Automobile Co., Cleveland.

Lewis, Charles F., Act. Mem.,

Civil and Consulting Engineer, 307 Cuyahoga Bldg., Cleveland.
Lewis, Ransome T., Cor. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 119 Caldwell ave., Elmira, N. Y.

Lindenthal, Gustav, C.E., Char. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, North River Bridge Co.,

45 Cedar street, New York city.
Line, Francis, Assoc. Mem.,

Manager for The Keasbey & Mattison Co., Magnesia Coverings,

117 Water street, Cleveland.
Lucas, George C, Act. Mem.,

General Manager of The Cleveland Frog and Crossing Co.,

Bessemer ave. and Erie Railroad, Cleveland.
Lucas, Henry Martin, Act. Mem.,

Lucas Machine Tool Co., 274 Perkins ave., Cleveland.

McGeorge, John, Act. Mem.,

Engineer, Wellman-Seaver Engineering Co.,

1404 New England Bldg., Cleveland.
McIntyre, James, Act. Mem.,

Master Carpenter, Mahoning Division, Erie Railroad,

136 Sawtell ave., Cleveland.

32 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

McLouth, Lewis C, B.S., Act. Mem.,

Principal, Central Manual Training School,

Cedar ave., near Willson, Cleveland.
McMurray, Max., Act. Mem.,

General Superintendent Newburg Steel Works, American Steel
and Wire Co., 1424 Euclid ave., Cleveland.

Marani, Virgil G. F., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Assistant Engineer, Cleveland Gas Light and Coke
Co., 145 Cornel street, Cleveland.

Marble, Henry D., Assoc. Mem.,

Secretary and Treasurer The Hutson Coal Co., Blackstone Bldg.,

405 Bolton ave., Cleveland.
Martens, Henry E., Act. Mem.,

Engineer, The Osborn Co., 19 Earle ave., Glenville, Ohio.

Metcalf, Frederick, Act. Mem.,

Treasurer, Chase Machine Co., in Elm street, Cleveland.

Michelson, Albert A., Ph.D., Hon. Mem.,

Head Professor of Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago.

Miller, Dayton C, Ph.B., A.M., D.Sc, Act. Mem.,

Professor of Physics, Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland.
Miller, Walter, Act. Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 407 Perry-Payne Bldg., Cleveland.

Mills, Edwin S., Assoc. Mem.,

Sales Agent, The Carnegie Steel Co., Ltd.,

702 Perry-Payne Bldg., Cleveland.
Mitchell, Albert E., M.E., Char. Mem.,

Superintendent Motive Power Erie Railroad and lines operated,
21 Cortland street, New York city.

Residence, 90 High street, Passaic, N. J.
Moore, Walter S., Act. Mem.,

Engineer, Maintenance of Way, Cleveland and Indianapolis divi-
sion, Big Four Railway, 859 Stark street, Cleveland.
Mordecai, Augustus, C.E., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Chief Engineer, Erie Railroad,

830 Garfield Bldg., Cleveland.
Morley, Edward W., Ph.D., LL.D., Hon. Mem.,

Professor of Chemistry, Adelbert College, Cleveland.

Morse, Benjamin F., C.E., Act Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Architect, 36 Cheshire street, Cleveland.

Naylor, Ernest W., Cor. Mem.,

Hydraulic and Consulting Engineer,

Fiftieth street and Lancaster ave., Philadelphia, Pa.
Neff, Frank H, B.S., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Professor of Civil Engineering, Case School of Applied Science,

860 Doan street, Cleveland.
Nelson, Harry S., Act. Mem.,

Architect, with Barnum & Co., New England Bldg., Cleveland.
Newhall, Walter S., Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad,

277 Perkins ave., Cleveland.
Ney, Robert W., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Manager American Steel and Wire Co.,

143 Crawford road, Cleveland.

CIVIL ENGINEERS' CLUB OF CLEVELAND. 33

Oldham, Joseph R., Act. Mem.,

- Naval Architect and Marine Engineer,

814 Perry- Payne Bldg., Cleveland.
Oliver, John G., Act. Mem.,

Partner, Bardons & Oliver,

Corner Case ave. and Hamilton street, Cleveland.
Olmstead, H. L., Act. Mem.,

With The Osborn Co., 50 Mayfield road, Cleveland.

Orr, Charles, Assoc. Mem.,

Librarian Case Library, Cleveland.

Osborn, Frank C, C.E., Act. Mem.,

Of The Osborn Co., Civil Engineers,

503-509 Osborn Bldg., Cleveland.
Otis, Charles A., Jr., Assoc. Mem.,

Otis, Hough & Co., Iron and Steel,

407 Perry-Payne Bldg., Cleveland.
Otis, William L., Assoc. Mem.,

Artistic Home Decorations, 255 Erie street, Cleveland.

Paine, Charles, Hon. Mem.,

Consulting Civil Engineer, 32 Park Place, New York city,

Tenafly, N. J.
Palmer, Charles O., Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 32 Cedar ave., Cleveland.

Parmlev, Walter C, M.S., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Department of Public Works,

19 Burt street, Cleveland.
Paul, Hosea, Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio.

Petterson, A. Hugo, Cor. Mem.,

Engineer, Anaconda Copper Mining Co., Anaconda, Mont.

Pierson, Isaac K., Act., Mem.,

Civil and Consulting Engineer, 416 Cuyahoga Bldg., Cleveland.

Porter, Albert H., A.M., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 403 Osborn Bldg., Cleveland.

Prentiss, Francis F., Act. Mem.,

Manfr. Cleveland Twist Drill Co., 102 The Lennox, Cleveland.
Rawson, Marius E., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 762 Genesee ave., Cleveland.

Ray, W. Morrison, C.E., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Cleveland, Lorain and Wheeling Railroad,

625 Denison ave., Cleveland.
Raynal, Alfred H., Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 1626 Riggs Place, Washington, D. C.

Reed, William E, Act. Mem.,

With Warner & Swasey,

The Croxden, 977 Prospect street, Cleveland.
Rice, Joseph H., Cor. Mem.,

Transitman, Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad,

Ashtabula, Ohio.
Rice, Walter P., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Director of Public Works, City Hall, Cleveland.

34 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES,

Richards, Francis H., Cor. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer and Expert in Patent Cases,

9-13 Murray street, New York city.
Richardson, John N., Act. Mem.,

Architect, Bangor Bldg., 262 Prospect street, Cleveland.

Rider, George S., Act. Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 604 Century Bldg., Cleveland.

Ritchie, James, B.S., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Department of Public Works, Cleveland.

Rust, Lucian, Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway,

Cleveland.
St. John, Edward M., Act. Mem.,

Structural Engineer, 213 Fisk street, Pittsburg, Pa.

Saunders, Geo. C, Act. Mem.,

With The Osborn Co., Civil Engineers,

509 Osborn Bldg., Cleveland.
Sawtelle, Edmund M., Cor. Mem.,

Electrical Engineer, with the Westinghouse Electric and Mfg. Co.,

Norfolk street, Strand, London, Eng.
Schmitt, John G., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent of Streets, Cleveland Gas Light and Coke Co.,

356 Superior street, Cleveland.
Schulz, Charles F., Act. Mem.,

First Assistant Engineer, Water Works Division, Department of
Public Works, 354 Superior street, Cleveland.

Searles, William H., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Consulting Civil Engineer, Elyria, Ohio.

Skeels, Arthur A., B.S., Act. Mem.,

Instructor in Physics, W. High School,

890 Denison ave., Cleveland.
Smith, Howard Wells, M.E., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Shelby Steel Tube Co.,

American Trust Bldg., Cleveland.
Smith, Jared A., Act. Mem.,

Col. Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, Civil and Military Engineer,

69 Flood Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.
Smith, James A., Assoc. Mem.,

Contractor for Public Works,

1630 Williamson Bldg., Cleveland.
Smith, James J., Assoc. Mem.,

Sanitary and Heating Engineer, 404 Erie street, Cleveland.

Smythe, Frank A., Act. Mem.,

President, Thew Automatic Shovel Co., Lorain, Ohio.

Staley, Cady, C.E., Ph.D., LL.D., Act. Mem.,

President Case School of Applied Science,

63 Adelbert street, Cleveland.
Stanford, J. Verne, Act. Mem.,

Instructor, Case School of Applied Science,

14 Lees Court, Cleveland.
Stinchcomb, William A., Act. Mem.,

Transitman, with City Civil Engineer,

1987 Denison ave., Cleveland.

CIVIL ENGINEERS' CLUB OF CLEVELAND. 35

Stockwell, John N., Ph.D., Hon. Mem.,

Astronomer, 1008 Case ave., Cleveland, Ohio.

Stouffer, Leslie B., Assoc. Mem.,

With Warner & Swasey, 148 Putnam street, Cleveland.

Strong, Charles H., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Contractor,

622 Cuyahoga Bldg., Cleveland.
Swasey, Ambrose, Act. Mem.,

Firm of Warner & Swasey, Mfrs. of Machine Tools and Astro-
nomical Instruments, 1728 Euclid ave., Cleveland.
Talbot, Joseph T., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Park Department,

73 Mayfield Road, Cleveland.
Thompson, Henry C, C.E., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 20 Brenton street, Cleveland.

Thurston, Edwin L., Assoc. Mem.,

Patent Lawyer, 1028 Society for Savings, Cleveland.

Titcomb, George E., Act. Mem.,

Engineer, McMyler Mfg. Co., 23 LaGrange street, Cleveland.

Treat, Francis Henry, Act. Mem.,

Former General Superintendent Cleveland Rolling Mill Co.,

2644 Euclid ave., Cleveland.
Van Dorn, Thomas B., Act. Mem.,

Vice-President Van Dorn Iron Works, Cleveland.

Varney, Joshua D., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Surveyor, 53 Public Square, Cleveland.

Waitt, Arthur M., Cor. Mem.,

Superintendent of Motive Power and Rolling Stock, New York
Central and Hudson River Railroad,

Grand Central Station, New York city.
Walker, Charles F., Assoc. Mem.,

On staff of Engineering News, 1168 Euclid ave., Cleveland.

Walker, John, M.E., Cor. Mem.,

Mechanical and Mining Engineer, Gurnee, 111.

Walker, William J., Assoc. Mem.,

Superintendent Plate Mills, Otis Steel Co., Ltd.,

444 Crawford Road, Cleveland.
Wallace, James C, Act. Mem.,

General Manager American Ship Building Company,

120 Viaduct, Cleveland.
Warner, Worcester R., Act. Mem.,

Firm of Warner & Swasey, Mfrs. of Machine Tools and Astro-
nomical Instruments, 1722 Euclid ave., Cleveland.
Watson, Wilber Jay, Act. Mem.,

With The Osborn Co., Civil Engineers,

Osborn Bldg., Cleveland.
Webb, Robert L., Act. Mem.,

Engineer of The Forest City Steel and Iron Co.,

The Leighton, Cleveland.
Webster, C. E., Cor. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Delaware Valley and Kingston Railway, Erie and
Wyoming Valley Railway, Clearfield, Pa.

26 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Wellman, Samuel Thomas, Act. Mem.,

President Wellman-Seaver Engineering Co.,

New England Bldg., Cleveland.
West, Thomas D., Cor. Mem.,

General Manager Thos. D. West Foundry Co., Sharpsville, Pa.

White, Rollin H., M.E., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Superintendent White Sewing Machine Co.,

56 Hillburn ave., Cleveland.
White, Windsor T., B.S., Act. Mem.,

Vice-President White Sewing Machine Co.,

124 Euclid ave., Cleveland.

Whitman, Paul S., Act. Mem.,

With The Brown Hoisting and Conveying Machine Co.,

77 Sixth ave., Cleveland.

Wight, Elmer B., Act. Mem.,

Engineer, with Cleveland Park Board, 23 Ware street, Cleveland.
Willard, Joseph W., Assoc. Mem.,

Retired General Manager Hercules Powder Co.,

1339 Willson ave., Cleveland.
Williams, John S., Act. Mem.,

Treasurer and General Manager Forest City Steel and Iron Co.,

262 Franklin ave., Cleveland.
Williamson, Charles S., Act. Mem.,

Chief Draftsman, No. 2 Works, Variety Iron Works,

39 Olive street, Cleveland.
Wilson, Frank W., C.E., Cor. Mem.,

Manager Boston Bridge Works, 70 Kilby street, Boston, Mass.

Wilson, John M., LL.D., Hon. Mem.,

Brigadier-General, Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army,

1773 Massachusetts ave., Washington, D. C.
Winton, Alexander, Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Winton Bicycle Co., President Winton Automo-
bile Co., Brookfield ave., Cleveland.
Wolverton, Irving M., B.S., C.E., Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Mt. Vernon Bridge Works, Mt. Vernon, Ohio.
Wood, James, Assoc. Mem.,

Contractor, 163 Bolton ave., Cleveland.

Wright, Chas. H., Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, The Brown Hoisting and Conveying Machine Co.,

Cleveland.
Yates, Preston K., Act. Mem.,

Engineer, L. P. & J. A. Smith Co.,

532 East Prospect street, Cleveland.
Zesiger, Albert W., Act. Mem.,

Draftsman, Department Public Works, 720 Logan ave., Cleveland.

ENGINEERS' CLUB OF ST. LOUIS. 37

Engineers' Club of St. Louis.

Abbot, Frederick William,

President Abbot-Gamble Contracting Co., Engineers and Con-
tractors, 620 Chestnut street, St. Louis, Mo.
Adkins, James, Jr.,

Assistant Engineer, St. Louis Transit Co.,

1414 S. Ewing ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Angell, J. E.,

Member of firm Walter L. Flower & Co.,

1611 Chemical Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

ASHBURNER, THOMAS,

Agent Babcock & Wilcox Co., Chicago, 111.

Axtel, Frank Foye,

U. S. Inspector, Pilot Town, La.

Baier, Julius,

Conrey Placer Mining Co., Laurain, Madison Co., Mont.

Baker, Vernon,

Water Works Extension, 77 East May street, St. Louis, Mo.

Barns, William Eddy,

Editor The Age of Steel, Fullerton Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Barth, Carl G. L.,

Mechanical Engineer, with Bethlehem Steel Co.,

121 S. High street, Bethlehem, Pa.
Bar wick, Oliver J.,

Building Contractor, 510 Pine street, St. Louis, Mo.

Bary, Mark,

Electrical Engineer, with H. H. Humphrey,

, 1305 Chemical Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Bascome, Western R.,

Assistant Engineer, with New East River Bridge,

84 Broadway, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Bausch, Frederick Emil,

Chief Engineer, Pittsburg Plate Glass Co., Crystal City, Mo.

Beahan, Willard,

Division Engineer, C. and N. W. Ry., Winona, Minn.

Beardslee, Frank Dixon,

Contracting Agent, Missouri Edison Electric Co.,

415 Locust street, St. Louis, Mo.
Bendit, Louis,

Member firm of Lanfketter & Bendit, Mechanical Engineers and
Contractors, 810 Olive street, St. Louis, Mo.

Bennett, William A.,

First Assistant Engineer City Water Department,

3945 Castleman ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Bilharz, O. M. C,

Mining Engineer of Doe Run and St. Joe Lead Co.,

Flat River, Mo.
Blaisdell, Anthony Houghtaling,

Civil Engineer, with Missouri River Commission,

1515 Lucas Place, St. Louis, Mo.

38 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Borden, Albert,

Structural and Mechanical Engineer,

808 Mermod & Jaccard Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Bouton, George Innes,

Principal Assistant Engineer, Bryan & Humphrey,

2909 Park ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Bouton, William,

Vice-President Pitzman's Company of Surveyors and Engineers,

2909 Park ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Boyd, Alfred,

Beulah, Ark.
Boyer, Joseph,

President Boyer Machine Co.,

Second and Amsterdam aves., Detroit, Mich.
Branch, Henry,

Tucson, Ariz.
Branne, John Severin,

Chief Engineer Koken Iron Works,

Koken Iron Works, St. Louis, Mo.
Brenneke, William George,

Brenneke & Fay, Consulting Civil Engineers,

1000 Fullerton Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Brown, Walter Seavy,

Assistant Mechanical Engineer, Construction Department, St.
Louis Water Works, 3822 Hartford street, St. Louis, Mo.

Bruner, Preston Martin,

Contractor for Concrete Work,

304 N. Eighth street, St. Louis, Mo.
Bryan, Charles Walter,

Agent American Bridge Co., Empire Bldg., Pittsburg, Pa.

Bryan, William Henry,

Consulting Engineer, 707 Lincoln Trust Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Burgess, Robert,

Division Engineer, St. Louis, Kansas City and Colorado Railroad,

Borbois, Gasconade county, Mo.
Burnet, George,

Consulting Engineer, Rialto Bldg.,

4415 Washington ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Butler, Lawrence Parker,

First Lieutenant, 41st Infantry, U. S. V., Manila, P. I.

Caldwell, William Anderson, Jr.,

Mechanical Engineer, 4600 Maryland ave., St. Louis, Mo.

Cameron, Duncan F.,

General Manager of Mines, Donk Bros. Coal & Coke Co.,

Third and Pine streets, St. Louis, Mo.
Carr, Lovell H.,

Western Representative Atlas Cement Co.,

143 Liberty street, New York, N. Y.
Chaphe, James Manning,

Engineer, with Matthews Bros., 600 Carleton Bldg.,

3060 Sheridan ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Chaplin, Winfield Scott,

Chancellor of Washington University,

Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.

ENGINEERS' CLUB OF ST. LOUIS. 39

Chassaing, Chas. W.,

Draftsman Union Iron and Foundry Co.,

1762 Missouri ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Childs, Oliver W.,

Chief Engineer Stupp Bros. Bridge and Iron Co.,

2301 S. Seventh street, St. Louis, Mo.
Chollar, Byron Edgar,

Engineer Laclede Gas Light Company,

716 Locust street, St. Louis, Mo.
Clark, Charles Wright,

Architect and United States Assistant Engineer,

Webster Groves, Mo.
Colby, Branch Harris,

Colby & Baker, Civil and Consulting Engineers,

708 Lincoln Trust Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Colnon, Redmond Stephen,

Contractor, Room 127, Laclede Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Comber, William George,

United States Assistant Engineer, Mississippi River Commission,

1 1 15 Fullerton Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Connor, Edward Hanson,

Engineer, Missouri Valley Bridge and Iron Works,

Leavenworth, Kan.
Cook, Abraham,

Secretary Laclede Car Company,

4500 N. Second street, St. Louis, Mo.
Cordes, E. A.,

Superintendent Steam Plants, Missouri Edison Electric Co.,

4328 Duncan ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Crosby, Benjamin Lincoln,

Assistant Auditor Burlington Lines,

1213 Charles street, St. Joseph, Mo.
Davis, Charles Henry,

Civil Engineer, 99 Cedar street, New York, N. Y.

Dean, John,

Engineer Park Department, 1328 E. Aubert ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Dicke, Edward Christian,

Assistant Engineer, Brenneke & Fay, Box 31, Hartford City, Ind.
Dickens, Albert White,

Assistant Engineer St. Louis Water Works Extension,

601 Baden ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Dun, James,

Chief Engineer Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad,

Topeka, Kan.
Dunaway, Horace,

United States Assistant Engineer, United States Engineer's Office,

St. Paul, Minn.
Dziatzko, Leo Charles,

Resident Engineer M. and St. L. R. R.,

2912 Ellendale ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Faust, Frank Coridon,

Engineer and Superintendent of Construction, Flick & Johnson
Construction Co., of Davenport, Iowa, Newport, Tenn.

40 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Fay, Edward Bayrd,

Brenneke & Fay, Consulting Engineers,

iooo Fullerton Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Ferguson, Oscar W.

Assistant United States Coast and Geodetic Survey,

404 Ninth street, N. E., Washington, D. C.
Fischer, Louis E.,

Electrical and Mechanical Engineer, with Laufketter & Bendit,

810 Olive street, St. Louis, Mo.
Fish, Edward Russell,

Secretary Heine Safety Boiler Company,

2328 Arkansas ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Fisher, Charles Owen,

Secretary Pitzman's Company of Surveyors and Engineers,

3140 Russell ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Fisher, George W.,

Fulton Iron Works, Second and Carr streets, St. Louis, Mo.

Fisher, Samuel B.,

Chief Engineer M., K. and T. Ry.,

406 Wainwright Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Flad, Edward,

Water Commissioner, City Hall, St. Louis, Mo.

Fogarty, W. J.,

Manager Magnetite Foundry,

3951 West Belle Place, St. Louis, Mo.
Foster, Charles F.,

Mechanical Engineer, 1407 Manhattan Bldg., Chicago, 111.

Freeman, Stuart Ethan,

Consulting Mechanical Engineer, 4052 Olive street, St. Louis, Mo.
French, Geo. H.,

United States Assistant Engineer Mississippi River Commission,

1 1 15 Fullerton Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Garrels, William Louis,

Consulting Engineer, 4531 West Pine street, St. Louis, Mo.

Gayler, Carl,

Bridge Engineer, Street Department, City of St. Louis,

City Hall, St. Louis, Mo.
Gould, William Tillottson,

Resident Engineer Texas Central Railway, Waco, Texas.

Graves, William Nelson,

General Superintendent and Mechanical Engineer Hydraulic Press
Brick Co., 2813 Lafayette ave., St. Louis, Mo.

Gronemann, Henry,

District Engineer, Street Department, City of St. Louis,

2719 Stoddard street, St. Louis, Mo.
Guinn, John Broome,

Superintendent Durant, Compromise, Conomara, Smuggler, Late
Acquisition, etc., Mines, P. O. Box No. 603, Aspen, Col.

Hammond, Alonzo John,

Assistant Engineer Vandalia Line, Terre Haute, Ind.

Harrington, Ferdinand Finney,

Lake Superior Power Co., Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.

ENGINEERS' CLUB OF ST. LOUIS. 41

Havvkes, Chas. Wm.,

Manager Springfield Boiler and Manufacturing Co.,

Springfield, 111.
Hazzard, Albert B.,

Mechanical Engineer and Contractor,

615 N. Second street, St. Louis, Mo.
Hendricks, Victor K.,

Engineer M. of W. Terre Haute and Logansport Ry.,

118 N. Eighth street, Terre Haute, Ind.
Henby, William Hastings,

Pauh- Jail Manufacturing and Building Co.,

2610 S. Jefferson ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Hermann, Edward Adolph,

Sewer Commissioner, City of St. Louis,

505 N. Spring ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Hill, John,

President Hill-O'Meara Construction Co.,

Wainwright Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Hofmann, Alwin,

3641 Cleveland ave., St. Louis, Mo.

HOLMAN, MlNARD LaFEVER,

General Superintendent Missouri Edison Electric Company,

3744 Finney ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Howe, M. R.,

Professor of Civil Engineering, Rose Polytechnic Institute,

2108 N. Tenth street, Terre Haute, Ind.
Hubbard, Albert Winfred,

St. Louis, Mo.
Humphrey, Henry H.,

Consulting Electrical Engineer,

1305 Chemical Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Hunicke, Wm. A.,

2937 Henrietta street, St. Louis, Mo.
Hutchinson, Cary T.,

Consulting Electrical Engineer, 71 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Ingoldsby, Frank S.,

Vice-President and General Manager Ingoldsby Automatic Car Co.,

608 Chemical Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Jennings, James Gustav,

District Engineer, Street Department, City of St. Louis,

City Hall, St. Louis, Mo.
Jewitt, Eliot C,

Mining Engineer, with Cia Miniera, Fundidora y Afhnadora,

Fundicion No. 2, Monterey, Mexico.
Johnson, Albert Lincoln,

Engineer St. Louis Expanded Metal and Fire Proofing Co.,

Room 606, Century Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Johnson, George Dyer,

Assistant Superintendent Mississippi Glass Co.,

3938A North Eleventh street, St. Louis, Mo.
Johnson, John Butler,

Dean of Engineering School, University of Wisconsin,

Madison, Wis.
Jolley, Edwin James,

Engineer of Surveys, Street Department, City of St. Louis,

1 1 19 Bayard ave., St. Louis, Mo.

42 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Jones, Charles E.,

Instructor in Forging and Engineer in Charge of Steam Plant,
Washington University,

Manual Training School, St. Louis, Mo.
Judson, John Nicholas,

American Metal Co., Ltd., ;.nd Wetherill Separating Co.,

52 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Kimball, Clinton,

Consulting Engineer, Franklin Bank Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.,

Kirkwood, Mo.
Kinealy, John Henry,

Professor of Mechanical Engineering,

Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.
Krutzsch, Herman,

Vice-President and Manager St. Louis Iron and Machine Works,

3863 Cleveland ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Laird, John Alfred,

Consulting Engineer, Fullerton Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Laufketter, Frederick Clemens,

Member firm of Lanfketter & Bendit, Mechanical Engineers and
Contractors, 810 Olive street, St. Louis, Mo.

Layman, Waldo Arnold,

Assistant Manager and Treasurer Wagner Electric Mfg. Co.,

2341 S. Compton ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Leighton, George Bridge,

President Los Angeles Terminal Railway,

Rialto Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Leonard, Edward Francke,

President Toledo, Peoria and Western Railway ; office, Peoria, 111.

Springfield, 111.
Levy, Will,

Architect, Odd Fellows' Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Libby, Edmund Dorman,

Assistant United States Engineer, Mississippi River Improvement,

Custom House, St. Louis, Mo.
Lichter, John James, Jr.,

Electrical Engineer, St. Louis Transit Co.,

5305 Virginia ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Llewellyn, Francis John,

President, Koken Iron Works, St. Louis, Mo.

Lucke, Charles Edward,

Manager St. Louis Branch, Keuffel & Esser Co.,

708 Locust street, St. Louis, Mo.
Maltby, Frank Bierce,

United States Assistant Engineer,

1515 Locust street, St. Louis, Mo.
McCulloch, Richard,

Manager, Compagnie Genevoise des Tramways Electriques,

La Jonction, Geneva, Switzerland.
McFarland, C. M.,

American Arithmometer Co., 2102 Wash street, St. Louis, Mo.
McMath, Robert Emmet,

President of Board of Public Improvements,

City Hall, St. Louis, Mo.

ENGINEERS' CLUB OF ST. LOUIS. 43

McMath, Thomas Brodie,

Engineer, Greenfield and Indianapolis Rapid Transit Co., and En-
gineer Indianapolis Street Railway Co.,

1920 College ave., Indianapolis, Ind.
McMillin, Emerson,

President Laclede Gas Light Co., St. Louis,

40 Wall street, New York, N. Y.
Meier, Edward Daniel,

President and Chief Engineer Heine Safety Boiler Co.,

11 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Meinholtz, Herman Charles,

Superintendent Heine Safety Boiler Co.,

4812 Greer ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Melcher, Charles W.,

Western Manager Ingersoll-Sergeant Drill Co.,

84 Van Buren street, Chicago, 111.
Mersereau, Charles Vernon,

Assistant Engineer, Water Works Extension,

3838 Shenandoah ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Milner, Abram Neiswanger,

422 Fullerton Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Mitchell, Charles Dwight,

Civil Engineer on Water Works Extension,

77 E. May street, St. Louis, Mo.
Mitchell, Frank S.,

Civil Engineer, 15 Wall street, New York, N. Y.

Mitchell, Marcus Lafayette,

Chief Engineer. Wainwright Brewery,

1220 Armstrong ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Mitchell, William Selby,

Assistant Engineer, Improvement Mississippi River between Mis-
souri and Ohio Rivers, Custom House, St. Loius, Mo.
Monell, Joseph T.,

Superintendent Central Lead Co.,

Flat River. St. Francois Co., Mo.
Montgomery, Geo. S.,

Superintendent Lincoln Gas and Electric Co.,

1200 O street, Lincoln, Neb.
Moore, Philip North,

Consulting Mining Engineer, President Tecumseh Iron Co., Treas-
urer Rose Run Iron Co., of Kentucky.

Room 121, Laclede Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Moore, Robert,

Consulting Engineer, Room 119, Laclede Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Moore, William Henry,

District Engineer, Street Department, City of St. Louis,

4224 John ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Morey, Richard,

Engineer and Manager for Gilsonite Roofing and Paving Co.,

716 New York Life Bldg., Kansas City, Mo.
Moulton, Julius,

Civil Engineer. Harbor Department, City of St. Louis,

205 City Hall, St. Louis, Mo.

44 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Mysenburg, Theodore August,

Iron Manufacturer, American Central Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Neff, William A., Jr.,

Civil Engineer, 860 Doane street, Cleveland, Ohio.

Nicholson, Frank,

Mining Engineer, 504 Fifth ave., New York, N. Y.

Nipher, Francis Eugene,

Professor of Physics, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.

Ockerson, John Augustus,

Civil Engineer, Member Mississippi River Commission,

Fullerton Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Olshausen, Geo. R.,

Post-Graduate Student, University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany,

2631 Louisiana ave., St. Louis, Mo.
O'Reilly, Andrew John,

Supervisor of City Lighting, Room 326, City Hall, St. Louis, Mo.
Parker, Edgar Charles,

Superintendent and Engineer Samuel Cupples Real Estate Co.,

2012 Oregon ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Parker, Lemon,

Superintendent Parker-Russell Mining and Manufacturing Co.,

3413 Oak Hill ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Parker, Russell,

President Missouri Telephone Manufacturing Co.,

417 Pine street, St. Louis, Mo.
Pegram, Geo. H.,

Chief Engineer, Manhattan Railway,

10 Dey street, New York, N. Y.
Perkins, Nathan Waite, Jr.,

Mechanical Engineer, 4446 Page Boulevard, St. Louis. Mo.

Pfeifer, Herman Julius,

Assistant Engineer, Terminal Railroad Association,

Room 208, Union Station, St. Louis, Mo.
Phillips, Hiram,

Consulting Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineer,

525 Lincoln Trust Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Phillips, Richard Harvey,

Practicing Civil Engineer, 525 Lincoln Trust Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Pillsbury, F. S.,

Engineer of Motor Department, Wagner Electric Manufacturing
Co., 2017 Locust street, St. Louis, Mo.

Pitzman, Julius,

Street Improvement, Landscape Work and Surveying,

615 Chestnut street, St. Louis, Mo.
Porter, Joseph Franklin,

President and Engineer Alton Railway, Gas and Electric Co.,

205 Market street, Alton, 111.
Poss, Victor H,

Draftsman, United States Engineer's Office,

Custom House, St. Louis, Mo.
Post, Trueman Marcellus,

Mechanical Draftsman, Mississippi River Commission,

5678 Cabanne ave., St. Louis, Mo.

ENGINEERS' CLUB OF ST. LOUIS. 45

Reber, Henry Linton,

Secretary and Chief Engineer Kinloch Telephone Co.,

Century Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Reel, Charles Gordon,

Consulting Engineer, 920 Rialto Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Reeves, William Henry,

St. Louis Agent, Henry R. Worthington,

317 N. Ninth street, St. Louis, Mo.
Ringer, Frank,

Draftsman in charge of Records, M. K. T. Ry.,

406 Wainwright Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Rohrich, Harold A.,

Superintendent American Arithmometer Co.,

4063 Delmar ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Roper, Denney W.,

Superintendent Electric Equipment, Missouri Edison Co.,

Nineteenth and Gratiot streets, St. Louis, Mo.
Ruckert, Louis,

Dealer in Drawing Materials, etc.,

3023 Shenandoah ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Russell, S. Bent,

Assistant Engineer in Charge of Water Works Extension,

77 E. May street, St. Louis, Mo.
Saxton, Edmund,

Street Railway Contractor,

1244 Eleventh street, N. W., Washington, D. C.
Schaub, Julius William,

Civil Engineer, Specialty: Bridges and Buildings,

1649-50 Monadnock Block, Chicago, 111.
Schaumleffel, Peter W.,

Superintendent St. Louis Lead and Oil Co., Howard Station,

2329 Whittemore Place, St. Louis, Mo.
Schmitz, Otto,

Civil Engineer, with Julius Pitzman,

21 14 S. Compton ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Schramm, Oscar H.,

Manager The Brownell & Co., makers of Boilers and Engines,

1216 Union ave., Kansas City, Mo.
Schwedtmann, Ferdinand,

Superintendent Wagner Electric Manufacturing Co.,

2017 Locust street, St. Louis, Mo.
Seddon, James Alexander,

United States Assistant Engineer,

1637 Indiana ave., Chicago, 111.
Shaw, Howard Burton,

Professor Electrical Engineering, State University, Columbia, Mo.
Sherman, Walter J.,

Riggs & Sherman, Civil and Consulting Engineers,

613 Nasby Bldg., Toledo, Ohio.
Siebert, Alfred,

Consulting Engineer and Refrigerating Expert,

4950 Columbia ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Smith, Bathurst,

United States Assistant Engineer, Sioux City, Iowa.

46 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Sneddon, James Prentice,

Stirling Boiler Co., Barberton, Ohio.

Spalding, Frederick Putnam,

Professor of Civil Engineering, University of the State of Missouri,

Columbia, Mo.
Spencer, Eugene J.,

Engineer and Sole Western Agent for the Underground Electric
Cables of the Safety Insulated Wire and Cable Co. of New
York, Room 24, Laclede Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Stolberg, Emil Charles,

Mechanical Engineering Department, Missouri Pacific Ry.,

2916 Eads ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Stuart, Alfred A.,

Engineer and Manager for M. P. Davis, Constructing Substructure
of Quebec Bridge, Sillery P. O., Canada.

Swope, Gerard,

Electrical Engineer and Representative in St. Louis of Western
Electric Company, Security Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Sykes, Henry Hutchins,

Chief Engineer, Bell Telephone Co. of Missouri,

Telephone Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Taussig, Hubert Primus,

Consulting Civil Engineer,

Room 320, Wainwright Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Taylor, John Walter,

Chief Engineer, T. R. R. A. and St. L. M. B. T. Ry.,

Union Station, St. Louis, Mo.
Thacher, Arthur,

President and Manager Central Lead Co. ; President Renault
Lead Co., 4304 Washington ave., St. Louis, Mo.

Thompson, Wilbur Hayes,

Electrical Engineer, Wagner Electric Manufacturing Co.,

1906 La Salle street, St. Louis, Mo.
Tidemann, Henry Gerhard,

Mechanical Engineer, with Heine Safety Boiler Co.,

1726 Mississippi ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Trepp, Samuel,

Mechanical Engineer, Malinkrodt Chemical Works,

4150 Westminster Place, St. Louis, Mo.
Tripp, Chas. A.,

Engineer, Bemis Bros. Bag Co. and allied firms,

Bemis Indianapolis Bag Co., Indianapolis, Ind.
Tucker, Charles H.,

Treasurer of A. Leschen & Sons' Rope Co.,

3853 Washington Boulevard, St. Louis, Mo.
Turner, Orville H. B.,

United States Assistant Engineer, with Missouri River Commis-
sion, Maplewood, Mo.
Tyrrell, Warren A.,

Assistant Engineer, St. Louis Water Department,

3920 Folsom ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Urbauer, Hugo Frederick,

President of Urbauer-Atwood Heating Co.,

3956 Morgan street, St. Louis, Mo.

ENGINEERS' CLUB OF ST. LOUIS. 47

Vail, Jesse Aaron,

Agent, Hamilton Corliss Engine Works,

148 Laclede Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Van Ornum, John Lane,

Professor of Civil Engineering,

Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.
Van Sant, Robert Lawrence,

Engineer and Contractor, 609 Commercial Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Varrelmann, Charles,

Street Commissioner, City Hall, St. Louis, Mo.

Wagner, Herbert Appleton,

Mechanical and Electrical Engineer,

Westmoreland Hotel, St. Louis, Mo.
Wall, Edward Everett,

First Assistant Civil Engineer, Sewer Department,

City Hall, St. Louis, Mo.
Wangler, Joseph Frank,

Boiler Manufacturer, 1535 N. Ninth street, St. Louis, Mo.

Warren, Beriah,

Master Mechanic, Toledo, Peoria and Western Railroad,

Peoria, 111.
Way, Sylvester B.,

Superintendent Imperial Electric Light, Heat and Power Co.,

Tenth and St. Charles streets, St. Louis, Mo.
Wheeler, Herbert Allen,

Secretary and Treasurer Standard Tile Co.,

3124 Locust street, St. Louis, Mo.
Williams, Walter Scott,

Surveyor, Mississippi River Commission,

1 1 15 Fullerton Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Winslow, Arthur,

Geologist and Mining Expert,

104 West Ninth street, Kansas City, Mo.
Wise, William,

Assistant Sewer Commissioner, City Hall, St. Louis, Mo.

Woermann, John William,

Resident Engineer, Illinois and Mississippi Canal, Sheffield, 111.
Woodward, Edward K.,

Engineer Maintenance of Way, Detroit Division, Wabash Railroad,
Fort Street Union Station, Detroit, Mich.
Yeatman, Pope,

Mining Engineer,

P. O. Box 67, Johannesburg, South African Republic.
Zelle, William Charles,

General Manager, Mound City Construction Co.,

230 Lincoln Trust Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Zeller, Albert Henry,

Civil Engineer, 1000 Fullerton Bldg, St. Louis, Mo.

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Civil Engineers' Society of St. Paul.

Alderman, C. A.,

Chief Engineer, Dayton, Springfield and Urbana

Electric Railway Co., Columbus, Ohio.

Annan, C. L.,

Chief Engineer's Offices, Choctaw, Oklahoma

and Gulf Railroad Co., Little Rock, Ark.

Armstrong, J. H.,

Civil Engineer and Surveyor, 504 Globe Bldg., St. Paul, Minn.
Barber, P. E.,

Land Department, Northern Pacific Railway Co., St. Paul, Minn.
Blodgett, John,

East Side House, Seventy-sixth street and East River, New York.
Clark, H. E.,

Overseer, United States Engineer's Office,

Army Bldg., St. Paul, Minn.
Claussen, Oscar,

Commissioner of Public Works, St. Paul, Minn.

Crocker, H. S.,

Assistant Engineer, Board of Public Works,

City Hall, Denver,. Col.
Crosby, Oliver,

President, American Hoist and Derrick Co., St. Paul, Minn.

Curtin, David,

Engineer and Roadmaster, Twin City Rapid Transit Co.,

Minneapolis, Minn.
Curtis, W. W.,

Civil Engineer and Contractor,

549 Marquette Bldg., Chicago, 111.
Danforth, William,

Civil Engineer, Red Wing, Minn.

Darling, F. S.,

Assistant Engineer, Northern Pacific Railway Co.,

Tacoma, Wash.
Darling, W. L.,

Assistant Chief Engineer,

Northern Pacific Railway Co., St. Paul, Minn.
Du Shane, James D.,

Assistant Engineer, United States Engineer's Office,

Army Building, St. Paul, Minn.
Edmondstone, G. S.,

City Bridge Engineer, St. Paul, Minn.

Elder, Robert,

Civil Engineer, Fairbanks, Morse & Co., St. Paul, Minn.

Estabrook, J. D.,

Civil Engineer, 699 Lincoln ave., St. Paul, Minn.

Fernstrom, H.,

Chief Engineer, St. Joseph and Grand Island Railway Co.,

St. Joseph, Mo.
Forbes, Chas. A.,

Surveyor, Room 11, Court Block, St. Paul, Minn.

CIVIL ENGINEERS' SOCIETY OF ST. PAUL. 49

Freyhold, Felix,

Draftsman, Bureau of Yards and Docks, Navy Department,

Washington, D. C.
Harrison, H. H.,

Civil Engineer, Stillwater, Minn.

Hedges, S. H.,

Contracting Engineer, Chicago Bridge and Iron Co.,

Washington Heights P. O., Chicago, 111.
Herzog, Robert,

Assistant Engineer, Great Northern Railway Co., St. Paul, Minn.
Heuston, Geo. Z.,

City Engineer, Winona, Minn.

Hilgard, K. E.,

Civil Engineer, 18 Steinweissstrasse, Zurich V. Kreis, Switzerland.
Hogeland, Albert H.,

Resident Engineer, Great Northern Railway Co., St. Paul, Minn.
Horton, H. E.,

President and Chief Engineer, Chicago Bridge and Iron Co.,

Chicago, 111.
Hunt, C. A.,

Assistant Engineer, Montana Division, Great Northern

Railway Co., Havre, Mont.

Johnson, C. W.,

Chief Engineer, C, St. P., M. and O. Ry. Co., St. Paul, Minn.
Johnson, Noah,

Chicago Great Western Railway Co., St. Paul, Minn.

Loweth, C. F.,

Consulting Civil Engineer,

First National Bank Bldg., St. Paul, Minn.
Luserke, Otto,

Chief Draftsman, Great Northern Railway Co., St. Paul, Minn.
Lyon, Tracy,

General Superintendent, Chicago Great Western Railway Co.,

St. Paul, Minn.
McCoy, F. W.;

Assistant Engineer, Great Northern Railway Co., St. Paul, Minn.
Miller, Hew,

Civil Engineer, Room 10, Floor 11, 100 Broadway, New York.
Miller, N. D.,

Civil Engineer, 551 Westminster street, St. Paul, Minn.

Morris, C. J. A.,

Engineer and Contractor, 613 Goodrich ave., St. Paul, Minn.

Munster, A. W.,

Bridge Engineer, Chicago Great Western Railway Co.,

St. Paul, Minn.
Powell, A. O.,

Assistant Engineer, United States Engineer's Office,

418 Globe Bldg., St. Paul, Minn.
Raynor, C. W.,

United States Engineer's Office,

418 Globe Bldg., St. Paul, Minn.
Rockwell, Samuel,

Principal Assistant Engineer, L. S. and M. S. R. K. Co.,

Cleveland, Ohio.

50 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

R.UNDLETT, L. W.,

Civil Engineer, 605 Lincoln ave., St. Paul, Minn.

Smith, W. C,

Engineer, Guthrie & Co., St. Paul, Minn.

Somers, W. A.,

Civil Engineer, Room 33, Metropolitan Opera House,

St. Paul, Minn.
Starkey, A. R.,

Office Engineer, Office Commissioner of Public Works,

St. Paul, Minn.
Stevens, H. E.,

Engineer and Contractor, 530 Grand ave., St. Paul, Minn.

Swenson, H. A.,

Assistant Engineer, Northern Pacific Railway Co., St. Paul, Minn.
Toltz, Max,

Mechanical Engineer, Great Northern Railway Co., St. Paul, Minn.
Truesdell, W. A.,

Assistant Engineer, Great Northern Railway Co., St. Paul, Minn.
Wilgus, W. J.,

Chief Engineer, N. Y. C. and H. R. R. and leased lines,

Grand Central Station, New York.
Williamson, Sydney B.,

Assistant Engineer, United States Muscle Shoals Canal,

Kingman, Ala.
Wilson, Geo. L.,

Assistant Commissioner of Public Works, St. Paul, Minn.

Winslow, C. A.,

Assistant in City Engineer's Department, St. Paul, Minn.

Woodman, E. E.,

Secretary, Tax Commissioner, C, St. P., M. and O. Railway Co.,

St. Paul, Minn.

ENGINEERS' CLUB OF MINNEAPOLIS. 51

Engineers' Club of Minneapolis.

Avery, Henry B.,

Mechanical Engineer, 2548 Nicollet ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
Burch, Edward P.,

Consulting Electrical Engineer,

1210 Guaranty Bldg., Minneapolis, Minn.
Carroll, J. E.,

Assistant Street Engineer, City Engineer's Department,

3452 Nicollet ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
Comstock, Robert,

Levelman, City Engineer's Department,

750 Madison street, N. E., Minneapolis, Minn.
Dealing, W. F.,

Sidewalk Engineer, City Engineer's Department,

City Hall, Minneapolis, Minn.
Durham, B. H.,

Transitman, City Engineer's Department,

618 E. Twenty-fourth street, Minneapolis, Minn.
Dutton, E. R.,

Assistant City Engineer, 3340 Pleasant ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
Fanning, Rennie B.,

Consulting Engineer, 602 Kasota Bldg., Minneapolis, Minn.

Gillette, L. S.,

Gillette-Herzog Mfg. Co.,

627 Second street, S. E., Minneapolis, Minn.
Graber, Alfred,

Assistant Engineer, Bismark, Washburn and Great Falls Ry.,

142 Fifth ave., N. E., Minneapolis, Minn.
Hoag, Prof. W. R.,

Professor of Civil Engineering, State University,

Minneapolis, Minn.
Illstrup, Carl,

City Sewer Engineer, City Hall, Minneapolis, Minn.

Pardee, Walter S.,

Architect, City Hall, Minneapolis, Minn.

Pillsbury, C. L.,

Electrical Engineer, Minneapolis International Electric Co.,

Minneapolis, Minn.
Redfield Wm. W.,

Engineer of Construction, City Water Works,

Room 8, City Hall, Minneapolis, Minn.
Shepardson, Prof. G. D.,

Professor of Electrical Engineering,

State University, Minneapolis, Minn.
Smith, Prof. H. E.,

Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering,

State University, Minneapolis, Minn.
Stack, W. E.,

Surveyor C. A. Smith Lumber Co.,

Camden Place, Minneapolis, Minn.
Stoopes, W. E.,

Assistant County Surveyor, Court House, Minneapolis, Minn.

Sublette, G. W.,

City Engineer, City Hall, Minneapolis, Minn.

52 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Montana Society of Engineers.

Ada mi, Chas. J., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer for Butte and Boston Mining Co., Butte, Mont.
Baker, Thomas T., Act. Mem.,

Baker & Potter, Civil and Mining Engineers, Butte, Mont.

Barker, Samuel, Jr., Act. Mem.,

Pennington & Barker, Civil and Mining Engineers,

29 E. Granite street, Butte, Mont.
Bayliss, Rawlinson T., Assoc. Mem.,

54 Old Broad street, London, E. C, England.
Beach, Frank, Assoc. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Las Animas, Col.

Beckler, Elbridge H., Hon. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 1838 Aldine ave., Chicago, 111.

Bickel, Paul S. A., Act. Mem.,

Civil and Mining Engineer, Thompson Block, Helena, Mont.

Blackford, Francis W., Act. Mem.,

Civil and Mining Engineer, United States Deputy

Mineral Surveyor, 48 E. Broadway, Butte, Mont.

Bond, Benjamin, Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Dillon, Mont.

Booth, Charles F., Act. Mem.,

Real Estate and Mining, Butte, Mont.

Bowman, Charles H., Act. Mem.,

Montana State School of Mines, Butte, Mont.

Breen, James, Act. Mem.,

General Manager Le Roi Mining and Smelting Co.,

Northport, Wash.
Calderwood, James M., Assoc. Mem.,

General Manager Rota Anna Mines, Limited,

Kapnikbanya, Hungary.
Cantine, Edward I., Act. Mem.,

Roadmaster Northern Pacific Railway Co., Billings, Mont.

Carroll, Eugene, Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer and Superintendent Butte City Water Co.,

Box 356, Butte, Mont.
Catlin, Arthur W., Act. Mem.,

Finkelnburg & Catlin, Civil and Mining Engineers,

Missoula, Mont.
Chandler, Richard E., Assoc. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 3 Highland Place, Ithaca, N. Y.

Christian, August, Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer Anaconda Copper Mining Co.,

Box 109, Butte, Mont.
Clark, Charles W., Act. Mem.,

General Manager W. A. Clark's Mines, Butte, Mont.

Clark, Harry P., Act. Mem.,

General Manager Custer Mine, Winston, Mont.

Clark, Joseph K., Act. Mem.,

Mining and Metallurgical Engineer, Vice-President and Manager
of Mayflower Mining Co., Butte, Mont.

MONTANA SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS. 53

Clark, William A., Act Mem.,

President Moulton Mining Co., President United

Verde Copper Co., W. A. Clark Brothers, Bankers,

Butte, Mont.
Crookes, Spencer H., Act. Mem.,

U. S. Deputy Mineral Surveyor, County Surveyor Park Co.,

Livingston, Mont.
Cum ming, Adelbert E., Act. Mem.,

Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, Harlem, Mont.

Danforth, Wm., Jr., Assoc. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Red Wing, Minn.

Darling, William L., Assoc. Mem.,

Principal Assistant Engineer Northern Pacific Railway,

St. Paul, Minn.
Davis, Charles H., Act. Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 99 Cedar street, New York, N. Y.

Davis, Henry B., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Deer Lodge, Mont.

Dean, Andrew L., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Canadian Smelting Works, Trail, B. C.

Decker, Rudolph J., Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Montana Ore Purchasing Co., Butte, Mont.
Dodge, Joseph T., Hon. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, retired,

346 W. Washington ave., Madison, Wis.
Dole, Asher, Assoc. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer Duluth, Superior and Belt Railway,

Superior, Wis.
Donovan, John J., Assoc. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 1201 Garden street, New Whatcom, Wash.

Dunshee, Bertram H., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Superintendent Boston and Montana Cons.

C. and S. Mining Co., Box ion, Butte, Mont.

Ellison, James H., Assoc. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 3237 Stevens ave., Minneapolis, Minn.

Finkelnburg, Oscar C, Act. Mem.,

Finkelnburg & Catlin, Civil and Mining Engineers,

Missoula, Mont.
Fitch, Howard A., Assoc. Mem.,

Western Agent and Engineer Gillette-Herzog Manufacturing Co.,

Salt Lake, Utah.
Flood, Winfield J., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Anaconda Copper Mining Co.,

832 Quartz street, Butte, Mont.
Fortiner, Walter S., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 4 Colonial Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

Foss, George O., Assoc. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 410 E. Nineteenth street, Minneapolis, Minn.

Frank, Alfred, Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Montana Ore Purchasing Co., Butte, Mont.
French, John, Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Surveyor, P. O. Box 56, Great Falls, Mont.

54 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Fuller, F. D., Act. Mem.,

Smelter Foreman, Boston and Montana C. C. and S. M. Co.,

Great Falls, Mont.
Gillie, John, Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Butte and Boston Con. Mining Co., Butte, Mont.
Gillies, Donald B., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, with C. W. Clark, Butte, Mont.

Goodale, Charles W., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent of Boston and Montana Cons.

Silver and Copper Mining Co., Great Falls, Mont.

Goodridge, Elmer O., Assoc. Mem.,

Chief Engineer Power Station, Lowell, Lawrence

and Haverhill Street Railway, Bradford, Mass.

Grant, Robert D., Act. Mem.,

General Manager Sioux and Utah Con. Mining Co.,

Salt Lake, Utah.
Gutelius, Fred P., Act. Mem.,

Resident Engineer, Canadian Pacific Ry., Nelson, B. C.

Hand, Carlton H., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Butte, Mont.

Hardenbrook, D. Walker, Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Los Angeles, Cal.

Harper, Joseph H., Act. Mem.,

Harper & Macdonald, Civil and Mining Engineers, Butte, Mont.
Harrison, Edmund P. H., Assoc. Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Contractor, Martinsburg, W. Va.

Harrison, William H., Assoc. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Shannon Copper Co., Clifton, Ariz.

Haven, William A., Hon. Mem.,

Inspecting Engineer Erie Railway,

Room 10, Erie R. R. Depot, Buffalo, N. Y.
Hebgen, Max, Act. Mem.,

Electrical Engineer, Superintendent Butte Lighting
and Power Co., and General Manager Montana
Power Transmission Co., Butte, Mont.

Heinze, F. August, Act. Mem.,

President and General Manager Montana Ore Purchasing Co.,

Butte, Mont.
Heller, Daniel E., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, 816 Twenty-fourth street, Denver, Col.

Henley, James H., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Little Johnnie Mine,

301 East Fifth street, Leadville, Col.
Herron, John, Assoc. Mem.,

Mine Superintendent Tom Boy Gold Mines, Telluride, Col.

Hobart, Azelle E., Act. Mem.,

United States Deputy Mineral Surveyor, Butte, Mont.

Horn, Henry J., Jr., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Montana Division N. P. Railway Co.,

Livingston, Mont.
Hovey, Albert S., Act. Mem.,

Civil and Mining Engineer,

Room 26, Merchants' National Bank Bldg., Helena, Mont.

MONTANA SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS. 55

Ingersoll, George T., Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Butte, Mont.

Jaqueth, Abram L., Act. Mem.,

City Engineer, Kalispell, Mont.

Keerl, James S., Act. Mem.,

Civil and Mining Engineer,

P. O. Box 374, Rooms 23 and 25, Atlas Block, Helena, Mont.
Kelley, Walter S., Act. Mem.,

Manager The New Elkhorn Mining Co., Ltd., Leadville, Col.

Kerr, Guy M., Assoc. Mem.,

Chemist and Metallurgist, 37 Bay street, Glens Falls, N. Y.

Kerr, James H., Assoc. Mem.,

Geologist and Metallurgist, Hotel Ruliff, Glens Falls, N. Y.

Ketchum, Milo S., Assoc. Mem.,

Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering Illinois State University,

Champaign, 111.
King, Ernest W., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Great Northern Mining and Development Co.,

Gilt Edge, Mont.
Kinney, Edward C, Act. Mem.,

General Manager West Gallatin Irrigation Co., Manhattan, Mont.
Klepetko, Frank, Act. Mem.,

General Manager of The Boston and Montana Cons. Copper and
Silver Mining Co. and Anaconda Reduction Works,

Butte, Mont.
Koberle, Albert, Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer Anaconda Copper Mining Co.,

909 Maryland ave., Butte, Mont.
Kornburg, Gustave A., Assoc. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 112 Taylor street, San Francisco, Cal.

Leggat, J. Benton, Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Butte, Mont.

Leonard, Frank M., Act. Mem.,

Civil and Mining Engineer, Member United States Mineral Land
Commission, Libby, Mont.

Leonard, R. L., Act. Mem.,

President Montana State School of Mines,

406 W. Broadway, Butte, Mont.
Macdonald, Malcolm L., Act. Mem.,

Harper & Macdonald, Civil and Mining Engineers, Butte, Mont.
Macfarlane, James, Assoc. Mem.,

Manager Horseshoe Gold Mining Co., Deer Lodge, Nev.

MacGinniss, John, Act. Mem.,

Vice-President and Manager Montana Ore Purchasing Co.,

Box 427, Butte, Mont.
Mc Arthur, Robert A., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer Parrot Silver and Copper Co.,

P. O. Box 757, Butte, Mont.
McCormick, Edmund B., Act. Mem.,

Instructor Mechanical Engineering Montana College of Agricul-
1 ture and Mechanic Arts, Bozeman, Mont

McHenry, Edwin H, Hon. Mem.,

Chief Engineer Northern Pacific Railway, St. Paul, Minn.

56

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Butte, Mont.

Billings, Mont.

Helena, Mont.

Glasgow, Mont.

Butte, Mont.

Gilt Edge, Mont.

Telluride, Col.

McNeill, Edward R., Act. Mem.,

Engineer in Charge of Construction Montana Central Railway,

Boulder, Mont.
Metlen, George R., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer and United States Deputy Mineral Surveyor,

Dillon, Mont.
Moore, Clinton H., Act. Mem.,

Mine Owner,
Morris, Albert A., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer,
McRae, Finlay, Act. Mem.,

Clerk First Judicial District Court,
Mahon, Archibald W., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, County Surveyor Valley Co.,
Mason, Carlisle, Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer,
McClean, William M., Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer,
Molson, Charles A., Assoc. Mem.,

Mining Engineer Tom Boy Gold Mines,
Moulthrop, George E., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Boston and Montana Cons. C. and S. Mining Co.,

P. O. Box 674, Butte, Mont.
Munroe, William, Act. Mem.,

Civil and Mining Engineer, Great Falls, Mont.

Palmer, Charles H., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, No. 532 Exchange, Boston, Mass.

Page, Clarence V., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer Anaconda Copper Mining Co.,

Box 922, Butte, Mont.
Page, James M., Act. Mem.,

U. S. Deputy Mineral Surveyor for Montana and Idaho,

Pageville, Mont.
Paine, C. W., Act. Mem..

Engineer in charge of new works, Butte City Water Co.,

Butte, Mont.
Parker, Lewis C, Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer,
Parker, Maurice S.. Act. Mem.,

Civil and Consulting Engineer,
Patterson, Henry M., Act. Mem.,

Architect,
Patterson, John C, Act. Mem.,

Resident Engineer Great Northern Railway,
Putnam, Benjamin R., Act. Mem.,

Chemist, Montana Ore Purchasing Co.,
Reed, Melville E., Assoc. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer Great Northern Railway, Wellington, Wash.
Repath, Chas. H., Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Anaconda Copper Mining Co.

New Reduction Works, Anaconda, Mont.

Ripley, Theron M., Act. Mem.,

Prov. Mar. Gen., Manila, Philippine Islands.

Garnet, Mont.

Ogden, Utah.

Butte, Mont.

Great Falls, Mont.

Butte, Mont.

MONTANA SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS. 57

Robinson, Geo. H., Act. Mem.,

Supt. Mont. Ore Purchasing Co., Butte, Mont.

Ross, Frank A., Assoc. Mem.,

General Manager Stromberg-Carlson Tel. Mfg. Co.,

76 Jackson Boulevard, Chicago, 111.
Rourke, Jerry, Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, with W. A. Clark, Butte, Mont.

Ryon, Augustus M., Assoc. Mem.,

97 Main street, Flushing, N. Y.
Sales, R. H., Act. Mem., *'

Assistant Engineer, Boston and Montana Mining Co.,

T » Butte> Mont-

Schumacher, Adam J., Act. Mem.,

Metallurgist, Dillon, Mont.

Scotten, Frank, Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer Boston and Montana Cons.

C. and S. Mining Co., P. O. Box 582, Great Falls, Mont.

Seligman, Albert J., Assoc. Mem.,

Civil Eng., Nos. 108-109 Exchange Court, New York City, N. Y.
Sickles, Eugene C, Act. Mem.,

Electrical and Mechanical Engineer, Anaconda Copper Manufac-
turing Co., Butte, Mont.
Sizer, Frank L., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, with W. A. Clark, Box 1333, Butte, Mont.

Sherman, Frederic W., Assoc. Mem.,

Park City, Utah.
Smith, Charles P., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Address unknown.

Smith, Forrest J., Act. Mem.,

Chief Mineral Clerk U. S. Surveyor-General's Office,

Helena, Mont.
Smith, Frank M., Act. Mem.,

Manager of Great Falls plant of the United Smelting

and Refining Co., Smelter P. O., Great Falls, Mont.

Strasburger, E. J., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Butte, Mont.

Swearingen, Clarence W., Act. Mem.,

City Engineer, Great Falls, Mont.

Tappan, Charles, Assoc. Mem.,

De LaMar's Nev. Gold Mining Co., Delamar, Nev.

Taylor, Frederic J., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer N. P. Ry. Co., Tacoma, Wash.

Thorpe, Clayton M., Act Mem.,

Civil Engineer, County Surveyor Gallatin Co.,

City Hall, Bozeman, Mont.
Tower, Burt. A., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Montana Ore Purchasing Co., Butte, Mont.

Tower, George W., Jr., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Montana Ore Purchasing Co., Butte, Mont.
Turner, Harry W., Act. Mem.,

General Mgr. Butte Lighting and Power Co., Butte, Mont.

Vail, Chas. D., Act. Mem.,

Principal Assistant Engineer, Butte City Water Co.,

Box 561, Butte, Mont.

58 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Vail, Richard R., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer Anaconda Copper Mining Co.,

Box 561, Butte, Mont.
Vance, Charles C, Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, with Butte City Water Co., Butte, Mont.

Warwick, Arthur W., Act. Mem.,

Chemist and Mining Engineer,

Care Hersey & Bean, Stillwater, Minn.
Weed, Walter H., Act. Mem.,

Geologist U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

Weir, Thomas, Act. Mem.,

Consulting and Mining Engineer, Dooly Bldg.,

P. O. Box 57, Salt Lake City, Utah.
Wheeler, Harry V., Assoc. Mem.,

Goldsworthy & Wheeler, Civil and Mining Engineers,

128 N. Main street, Los Angeles, Cal.
Whitcomb, Adelbert F., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer G. N. Railway, St. Paul, Minn.

White, R. T., Assoc. Mem.,

Superintendent Highland Boy Smelter, Murray, Utah.

White, William, Act. Mem.,

Architect, Butte, Mont.

Whitten, Benjamin D., Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, P. O. Box 56, Great Falls, Mont.

Whyte, Fred'k W. C, Act. Mem.,

General Manager Coal Department Anaconda Copper Min. Co.,

Belt, Mont.
Wickes, George T., Act. Mem.,

Mining Engineer, 602 N. Ewing street, Helena, Mont.

Williams, William H, Act. Mem.,

Professor of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering,

Montana State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts,

Bozeman, Mont.
Wilson, George W., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Philipsburg, Mont.

Wilson, Elliott' H., Act. Mem.,

Civil and Mining Engineer, Butte, Mont.

Winchell, Horace V, Act. Mem.,

Geologist, Anaconda Copper Mining Co., Butte, Mont.

Wishon, Walter W., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Speculator Mine, Butte, Mont.

Word, William F., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Gagnon Mine, Butte, Mont.

Young, John W., Assoc. Mem.,

Vice-President, Fraser & Chalmers, Chicago, 111.

Zaschke, William, Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer Anaconda Copper Mining Co., Butte, Mont.

TECHNICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 59

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Allardt, Geo. F., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 420 California street, San Francisco, Cal.

Ballantyne, A., Mem.,

Superintendent Light House Construction,

Room 89, Flood Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.
Barth, Hermann, Mem.,

Architect, 601 California street, San Francisco, Cal.

Bassell, Burr, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Standard Electric Company,

Mokelumne Hill, Cal.
Behr, H. C, Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Capetown, South Africa.

Behr, Dr. H. H., Assoc. Mem.,

Scientist, Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, Cal.

Bell, Newton M., Assoc. Mem.,

Manufacturer, 116 Battery street, San Francisco, Cal.

Blood, Geo. D., Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Box F, Park City, Utah.

Bowers, A. B., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 101 Sansome street, San Francisco, Cal.

Boyd, Jos. C, Mem.,

Surveyor, Sacramento, Cal.

Brandegee, T. S., Mem.,

Scientist, Box 684, San Diego, Cal.

Brigham, H. A., Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Care Lick House, San Francisco, Cal.

Brodie, Alex. O., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Crown Point Mine, Crown Point, Ariz.

Brooks, T. W., Mem.,

Technologist, Dunham, Carrigan & Hayden Co.,

19 Beale street, San Francisco, Cal.
Brown, Perry F., Mem.,

Civil Engineer,

Room 4, Tenth floor, Mills Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.
Browne, Ross E., Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Nevada Block, San Francisco, Cal.

Buckman, O. H., Mem.,

Surveyor, Napa City, Cal.

Butcher, Thomas W., Assoc. Mem.,

Builder, 4150 Twentieth street, San Francisco, Cal.

Buxton, Walter de, Merri.,

Civil Engineer, Box 137, Williams, Ariz.

Chodzko, A. E., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 220 Market street, San Francisco, Cal.

Congdon, Chas. H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Bakersfield, Kern county, Cal.

Connick, Harris D., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Board of Public Works,

City Hall, San Francisco, Cal.

60 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Crockett, J. B., Mem.,

Technologist, President San Francisco Gas and Electric Light Co.,

415 Post street. San Francisco, Cal.
Davis, Major C. E. L. B., Mem.,

Corps of Engineers, United States Army,

90 Flood Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.
Davis, Chas. Henry, Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 99 Cedar street, New York, N. Y.

Day, Chas. A., Assoc. Mem.,

Builder, Builders' Exchange, San Francisco, Cal.

Denio, O. H. M., Assoc. Mem.,

Foreman Mason, United States Navy,

Vallejo, Solano county, Cal.
Dickie, Geo. W., Life Mem.,

• Mechanical Engineer, Manager Union Iron Works,

San Francisco, Cal.
Dow, Geo. E., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Dow Steam Pump Works,

114 Beale street, San Francisco, Cal.
Dutton, Harry S., Mem.,

Architect, 321 Market street, San Francisco, Cal.

Eaton, Frederick, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Burdick Block, Los Angeles, Cal.

Edinger, F. S., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Bowditch street, Berkeley, Cal.

Elsemore, W. C, Mem.,

City Engineer, Eureka, Cal.

Erlach, Arnold d', Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 3821 Twentieth street, San Francisco, Cal.
Evans, Geo. H., Life Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Breckenridge, Col.

Falkenau, Louis, Mem.,

Chemist, 358 Sacramento street, San Francisco, Cal.

Ferris, J. W., Mem.,

Mining Engineer, 320 Sansome street, San Francisco, Cal.

Forderer, Joseph F., Assoc. Mem.,

Metal Worker, Forderer Cornice Works,

8 Natoma street, San Francisco, Cal.
Forsyth, Robert, Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Union Iron Works, San Francisco, Cal
Gates, H. D., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 311 Lyon street, San Francisco, Cal.

Gjessing, Erland, Assoc. Mem.,

732 Powell street, San Francisco, Cal.
Gray, John W., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 923 Linden street, Oakland, Cal.

Greub, Adolf., Assoc. Mem.,

Instrument Maker,

Care A. Lietz Company, 422 Sacramento street, San Francisco, Cal.
Grunsky, C. E., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, City Engineer, City Hall, San Francisco, Cal.

Gutzkow, Fred'k, Mem.,

Mining Engineer, 28 Columbia Square, San Francisco, Cal.

TECHNICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC COAST.

61

320 Sansome street, San Francisco, Cal.

21 Bernal ave., San Francisco, Cal.

Johannesburg, South African Republic.

Salinas, Monterey county, Cal.

Gaston, Nevada county, Cal.

Haas, Edward F., Mem.,

Civil Engineer,
Hall, C. I., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer,
Hall, Wm. Ham., Mem.,

Civil Engineer,
Hare, Lou G., Mem.,

Surveyor,
Harmon, Dana, Mem.,

Mining Engineer.
Hellmann, Fred'k, Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Care East Rand Proprietary Mines,

P. O. Box 204, Boksburg, South Africa.
Henderson, E. F., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Care San Francisco and San Joaquin Valley Ry.,

Fresno, Cal.
Henny, D. C, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Manager Excelsior Wooden Pipe Co.,

204 -Front street, San Francisco, Cal.
Herrmann, Charles, Mem.,

Surveyor,
Herrmann, F. C, Mem.,

Civil Engineer,
Hesse, Fred'k G, Mem.,

Professor,
Heuer, Col. Wm. H., Mem.,

Corps of Engineers,
Hewitt, Edward T., Mem.,

Instructor,
Hindes, Stetson G., Mem.,

Civil Engineer,
Hobson, J. B., Mem.,

Mining Engineer,
Hoffmann, Chas. F., Mem.,

Mining Engineer,

Care Ross E. Browne, Nevada Block, San Francisco, Cal.
Hollister, John J., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Santa Barbara, Cal.

Hopps, John H., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 330 Market street, San Francisco, Cal.

Hughes, D. E., Mem.,

Civil Engineer,

(United States Engineers), Box 416, San Diego, Cal.
Hunt, Loren E., Jun. Mem.,

Instructor in Civil Engineering,

University of California, Berkeley, Cal.
Irving, Samuel C, Assoc. Mem.,

Manufacturer, 116 Battery street, San Francisco, Cal.

Jackson, Byron, Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 625 Sixth street, San Francisco, Cal.

Johnston, George, Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 326 Oak street, San Francisco, Cal.

[10]

San Jose, Cal.

320 Sansome street, San Francisco, Cal.

P. O. Box 452, Oakland, Cal.

San Francisco, Cal.

619 Capp street, San Francisco, Cal.

330 Market street, San Francisco, Cal.

Quesnelle Forks, British Columbia.

62 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Jones, Edw. C, Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, San Francisco Gas and Electric Company,

415 Post street, San Francisco, Cal.
Keatinge, Richard, Assoc. Mem.,

Builder, Builders' Exchange,

40 New Montgomery street, San Francisco, CaL
Kellogg, H. Clay, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Santa Ana, Cal.

Kieffer, Stephen E., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Sutter Club, Sacramento, CaL

Kluegel, C. H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, P. O. Box 796, Honolulu, H. L

Knowles, F. E, Assoc. Mem.,

Builder, Builders' Exchange,

40 New Montgomery street, San Francisco, CaL
Kower, Hermann, Mem.,

Professor, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.

Kurtz, Charles M., Mem.,

Civil Engineer,

Room 4, Tenth Floor, Mills Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.
Lacy, B. T., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 615 Chestnut street, San Francisco, Cal.
Lamar, Peter E., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Honolulu, H. I.

Larkin, Harry, Assoc. Mem.,

Manufacturer, 116 Battery street, San Francisco, Cal.

Le Conte, L. J., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, P. O. Box 492, Oakland, CaL

Leonard, John B., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Care Healy, Tibbetts & Co.,

42 Stewart street, San Francisco, Cal.
Lietz, Adolf, Mem.,

Instrument Maker, 422 Sacramento street, San Francisco, Cal.
Livermore, Norman B., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Board of Public Works,

City Hall, San Francisco, CaL
Mahoney, John J., Assoc. Mem.,

Builder, 200 Crocker Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

Manson, Marsden, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Board of Public Works,

City Hall, San Francisco, Cal.
Marx, Chas. D., Mem.,

Professor, Leland Stanford, Jr., University, Palo Alto, Cal.

Masow, Frank H, Assoc. Mem.,

Builder, Box 133, Builders' Exchange, San Francisco, Cal.

McBean, P. McG, Assoc. Mem.,

Manufacturer, 1358 Market street, San Francisco, Cal.

McCann, Richard, Assoc. Mem.,

Building Contractor, 217 Waller street, San Francisco, Cal.

McCone, Alex. J., Assoc. Mem.,

Manufacturer, Fulton Foundry, Virginia City, Nev.

McGilvray, John D., Assoc. Mem.,

Builder, Builders' Exchange,

40 New Montgomery street, San Francisco, Cal.

TECHNICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 63

McNicoll, A. J., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 122 Main street, San Francisco, Cal.

McPhee, Daniel, Assoc. Mem.,

Builder, Nineteenth and Harrison streets, San Francisco, Cal.

Meese, Constant, Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 129 Fremont street, San Francisco, Cal.

Mendell, Col. Geo. H., Mem.,

Military Engineer, Board of Public Worko.

City Hall, San Francisco, Cal.
Merrill, E. H., Mem.,

Technologist, Standard Oil Co.,

421 Market street, San Francisco, Cal.
Meyer, Hermann, Mem.,

Mining Engineer, 11 30 Eddy street, San Francisco, Cal.

Miller, J. W., Assoc. Mem.,

Builder, 3384 Eighteenth street, San Francisco, Cal.

Molera, E. J., Life Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 2025 Sacramento street, San Francisco, Cal.

Moore. R. S., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Risdon Iron Works,

Howard ai:d Beale streets, San Francisco, Cal.
Morrin, Thomas, Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer. Mills Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

Morse, F. B., Mem.,

Mining Engineer, El Parian, Estado de Oaxara, Mexico.

Xoble, Patrick, Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Pacific Rolling Mills, San Francisco, Cal.
Oates, W. W., Mem.,

Architect, Stockton, Cal.

O'Shaughnessey, M. M., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Crocker Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

Power, Geo. C, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, San Buenaventura, Ventura county, Cal.

Power, Harold T., Mem.,

Mining Engineer, Michigan Bluff, Cal.

Prindle, Franklin C, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, United States Navy, Navy Yard, Mare Island, Cal.
Prutzman, Paul W., Mem.,

Chemist, Sixteenth and Mississippi streets, San Francisco, Cal.

Quinan, Wm. R., Mem.,

Chemist, care De Beers Consolidated Mines, Limited,

Guardian Bldg., Cape Town, South Africa.
Randall, H. L, Mem.,

Professor, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.

Randle, Geo. N., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, State Board Public Works, Sacramento, Cal.

Ransom, Tom. W., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer,

330 Market street,' Room 611, San Francisco, Cal.
Reid, Jas. W., Mem.,

Architect, Reid Bros., Call Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

Richards, John, Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 22 California street, San Francisco, Cal.

64 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Ridley, A. E. Brooks, Mem.,

Electrical Engineer,

Parrot Bldg., Fifth Floor, San Francisco, Cal.
Rossow, Ernest F., Mem.,

Draftsman, Vallejo, Cal.

Sala, Jos. C, Mem.,

Instrument Maker, 429 Montgomery street, San Francisco, Cal.
Sanborn, A. H., Mem.,

Surveyor, 632 Post street, San Francisco, Cal.

Schierholz, A., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, care Risdon Iron Works, San Francisco, Cal.
Schild, Edward T., Assoc. Mem.,

Manufacturer, Gundlach-Bundschu Wire Co.,

Second and Market streets, San Francisco, Cal.
Schild, Geo. F., Mem.,

Naval Architect, Vallejo, Cal.

Schindler, A. D., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Yosemite Hotel, Stockton, Cal.

Schulze, Henry A., Mem.,

Architect, 94 Flood Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

Schuyler, J. D., Mem.,

Civil Engineer,

524 Stimson Block, Third and Spring streets, Los Angeles, Cal.
Smith, Wm. P., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 1017 Monadnock Bldg., Chicago, Ills.

Soule', Frank, Mem.,

Professor, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.

Spiers, James, Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Fulton Iron Works, San Francisco, Cal.

Stewart, Col. C. Seaforth, Hon. Mem.,

Washington, D. C.
Taylor, James T., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Honolulu, H. I.

Thompson, Lawrence, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 915 Geary street, San Francisco, Cal.

Tower, Morton L., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, United States Engineer Office,

Empire City, Ore.
Uhlig, Carl, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, State Harbor Commission,

Ferry Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.
Vail, R. M., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Bowers, Cal.

Vischer, Hubert, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, United States Debris Commission,

Flood Bldg, San Francisco, Cal.
Von Geldern, Otto, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 1513 Vallejo street, San Francisco, Cal.

Waggoner, W. W., Mem.,

County Surveyor, Nevada City, Cal.

Wagoner, Luther, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 705 Chestnut street, San Francisco, Cal.

TECHNICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 65

Wallace, John H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Southern Pacific Company,

4 Montgomery street, San Francisco, Cal.
Wepfer, G. W., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Box 2088, Johannesburg, South Africa.

Wetmore, Geo. P., Assoc. Mem.,

Concrete Builder, 117 Sutter street, San Francisco, Cal.

Wilson, Commodore Theodore D., Hon. Mem.,

Washington, D. C.
Wing, Chas. B., Mem.,

Professor, Leland Stanford, Jr., University, Palo Alto, Cal.

Wolf, J. H. G., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Fort Baker, San Francisco Harbor, Cal.

Wright, Geo. A., Mem.,

Architect, Merchants' Exchange Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

66 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Detroit Engineering- Society.

Allor, Elmer L.,

Attorney-at-Law, with Clark, Durfee, Allor & Marston, 710 Union
Trust Bldg. Residence, Detroit, Mich.

Ash well, William H.,

Civil Engineer, with Wm. H. Ashwell & Co., 25 Whitney Opera
House. Residence, Grand ave., Highland Park, Mich.

Allen, John R.,

Professor Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Mich.

Residence, 226 S. Ingalls street, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Ames, Joseph H.,

Master Mechanic, Michigan Peninsular Car Co., Detroit, Mich.

Residence, 445 Ferry ave., Detroit, Mich.
Bridge, Henry,

Mechanical Engineer, Michigan Portland Cement Co.

Residence, 24 N. Jefferson ave., Coldwater, Mich.
Brown, Mason L.,

Civil Engineer, with Mason L. Brown, 820-823 Chamber Com-
merce. Residence, Detroit, Mich.
Barcroft, F. T.,

Civil Engineer, with Joy & Barcroft, 407-8 Ferguson Bldg.

Residence, 122 Westminster ave., Detroit, Mich.
Brinkerhoff, W. E.,

Draftsman, Detroit Bridge and Iron Works, Detroit, Mich.

Bothfeld, Charles C,

Civil Engineer, Iron and Steel Contractor, 34 Home Bank.

Residence, 183 W. Fort street, Detroit, Mich.
Bibbins, J. R.,

B.Sc, Edison Illuminating Co., Detroit, Mich.

Residence, 56 Hastings street, Detroit, Mich.
Bigler, F. S.,

Secretary, Michigan Bolt and Nut Works.

Residence, Detroit, Mich.
Bissell, H. S.,

With Shaw-Kendall Co., Toledo, Ohio.

Residence, Toledo, Ohio.
Burton, Charles F.,

Attorney, 12 Hodges Block, Detroit.

Residence, 50 Brainard street, Detroit, Mich.
Calder, Charles B.,

General Superintendent Detroit Shipbuilding Co.

Residence, 67 Avery ave., Detroit, Mich.
Conant, William S.,

Consulting Engineer, 36 Moffat Block.

Residence, 25 Eliot street, Detroit, Mich.

COLLAMORE, RALPH,

Assistant Engineer, with Field & Hinchman, 1206 Majestic Bldg.
Residence, The Clayton, Detroit, Mich.
Colby, Archie L.,

Engineer, Detroit Bridge and Iron Works.

Residence, 371 Vinewood ave., Detroit, Mich.

DETROIT ENGINEERING SOCIETY. 67

Courtis, William Munroe,

A.M., U. S. Potash Co., 412 Hammond Bldg.

Residence, 449 Fourth ave., Detroit, Mich.
Corse, William M.,

S. B. M. I. T. '99, Detroit White Lead Works, 560 E. Milwaukee

ave. Residence, 26 Hendrie ave., Detroit, Mich.

COLBURN, BURNHAM StANDISH,

Secretary and Treasurer Canadian Bridge Co., Ltd., Walkerville,
Ont. Residence, 25 Richard street, Detroit, Mich.

Cederstrom, B. E.,

Mechanical Engineer, with Samuel F. Hodges & Co., 320 Atwater
street. Residence, 180 N. Grand Boulevard, Detroit, Mich.

Cooley, Mortimer E.,

Professor Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Mich. Res., 727 S. State street, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Coffin, Charles L.,

Residence, 35 Medbury ave., Detroit, Mich.
Campau, M. Woolsey,

Draftsman, Dry Dock Engine Works, Detroit, Mich.

Residence, 564 Congress street, E. Detroit, Mich.
Demrick, A. H.,

Superintendent Engineer, Gilbert, Wilkes & Co., Union Trust Bldg.

Residence, Detroit, Mich.
Dow, Alexander,

General Manager, Edison Illuminating Co., 18 Washington ave.
Residence, 844 Cass ave., Detroit, Mich.
Dunlap, Frank M.,

Mechanical Engineer, 57 Selden ave.

Residence, 57 Selden ave., Detroit, Mich.
Douglas, Benjamin,

Bridge Engineer, Michigan Central Ry., Detroit, Mich.

Residence, Grosse Isle, Mich.
Davis, Joseph Baker,

Professor Geodesy and Surveying, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor. Residence, Ann Arbor, Mich.

Denison, Charles S.,

Professor, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

Residence, 502 E. Huron street, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Dierkes, Anthony F.,

Draftsman, Detroit Water Works.

Residence, 962 Bellevue ave., Detroit, Mich.
Dixon, Charles Y.,

Assistant Engineer, United States Improvement, Detroit River.

Residence, Amherstburg, Ontario, Canada.
Duncan, W. J.,

Assistant Bridge Engineer, Michigan Central Ry., M. C. R. R.
Depot, Detroit. Residence, 660 John R street, Detroit, Mich.
Du Pont, Antoine B.,

With St. Louis Transit Co., St. Louis. Mo.
Field, Henry George,

Consulting Engineer, with Field & Hinchman, 1206 Majestic Bldg.
Residence, 1477 Grand River ave., Detroit, Mich.
Fenkell, George H.,

Chief Draftsman, Detroit Water Office, 232 Jefferson ave.

Residence, 275 Balwin ave., Detroit, Mich.

68 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Farmer, Thomas, Jr.,

Mechanical Engineer, Detroit Citizens' Street Railway, 12 Wood-
ward ave. Residence, 68 Piquette ave., Detroit, Mich.
Green, Rutger B.,

Solvay Process Co. Residence, Detroit, Mich.

Galwey, J. H.,

Inspector, United States Inspection Service, 210 Old Federal Bldg.
Residence, 79 Leverette street, Detroit, Mich.
Gold mark, Henry,

Resident Engineer, with Geo. S. Morrison, 35 Wall street.

Residence, 270 W. Ninety-fourth street, New York.
Green, A. H., Jr.,

Manager Solvay Process Co.

Residence, 64 Lafayette ave., Detroit, Mich.
Gerhauser, William,

Mechanical Engineer, 1107 Chamber Commerce.

Residence, 562 Congress street, E. Detroit, Mich.
Greene, Charles E.,

Professor Civil Engineering. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Residence, 415 E. William street, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Haskell, Eugene E.,

United States Assistant Engineer, Engineer's Corps, United States
Army, Jones' Bldg.

Residence, Alhambra Flats, Detroit, Mich.
Hodge, Harry S.,

President Samuel Hodge & Co., Inc., 320 Atwater street.

Residence, 66 Winder street, Detroit, Mich.
Hubbell, Clarence W.,

Civil Engineer Board Water Com., 232 Jefferson ave.

Residence, 327 Field ave., Detroit, Mich.
Hanford, Herbert O.,

Draftsman Detroit Water Office.

Residence, 837 Fifteenth street, Detroit, Mich.
Hawks, James D.,

President Detroit and Mackinac Ry. Co.

Residence, 999 Jefferson ave., Detroit, Mich.
Hinchman, Theodore H, Jr.,

Consulting Engineer, with Field & Hinchman, 1206 Majestic Bldg.
Residence, 267 E. Larned street, Detroit, Mich.
Hewitt, Edgar,

Draftsman, Detroit Water Office, Detroit, Mich.

Kimball, Geo. H,

Chief Engineer, Pere Marquette Railway, Union Station.

Residence, 117 Henry street, Detroit, Mich.
Keep, William J.,

Superintendent, Michigan Store Co.

Residence, 753 Jefferson ave., Detroit, Mich.
Kiefer, Arthur E.,

Secretary and Treasurer Detroit Edge Tool Works, Detroit, Mich.
Residence, 884 Congress street, E. Detroit, Mich.
Kirby, Frank E.,

Chief Engineer, Detroit Dry Dock Co.

Residence, 555 Woodward ave., Detroit, Mich.

DETROIT ENGINEERING SOCIETY. 69

King, W. G,

City Engineer's Office, 16 City Hall.

Residence, 150 Calumet ave., Detroit, Mich.
Little, F. A.,

Civil Engineer, Standard Engine Co., 1101-2-3 Chamber Commerce.

Residence, 565 Bagg street, Detroit, Mich.
Lunn, Ernest,

Edison Illuminating Co., Miami ave., Detroit.
Leland, Henry M.,

General Superintendent, Leland & Faulconer Mfg. Co.

Residence, 69 Watson street, Detroit, Mich.
Lewis, Jacob F.,

With John T. McRoy, 302 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Livingstone, William A.,

Manufacturer, 40 Eliot street, Detroit, Mich.

Maxwell, David,

Bridge Engineer, with Riter-Conley Co., Pittsburg, Pa.

Residence, 204 North ave., Allegheny, Pa.
McMath, Francis C,

President and Engineer Canadian Bridge Co., Walkerville, Ont.

Residence, 29 Rowena street, Detroit, Mich.
McCrickett, Thos.,

With Russel Wheel and Foundry Co.

Residence, 12 Howard street, Detroit, Mich.
Maurice, Walter B.,

B.S., Michigan Tax Com.

Residence, 1285 Jefferson ave., Detroit, Mich.
Molitor, David,

Consulting and Civil Engineer, Fred. Rueping Leather Co.

Residence, 125 Harney street, Fond du Lac, Mich.
Molitor, Edward,

Assistant Chart Construction, United States Lake Survey, Room
14, Jones Bldg. Residence, 93 Winder street, Detroit, Mich.
Mason, F. H.,

Michigan and N. W. Ohio Rep., Harrison Safety Boiler Works,
79 Moffat Block. Residence, 630 Cass ave., Detroit, Mich.
Mattsson, A. George,

Mechanical Engineer, Detroit Dry Dock Engineering Works,

Detroit, Mich.
Masson, George,

Civil Engineer, 39 Columbia street, E. Detroit, Mich.

Morley, H. T.,

11 Kanter Bldg. Residence, 57 Canfield ave., W. Detroit, Mich.

Marshall, A. C,

Electrical Engineer, Rapid Railway Co.

Residence, 621 Second ave., Detroit, Mich.
Newkirk, Walter M.,

Buhl Malleable Co. Residence, 91 Winder street, Detroit, Mich.
Pierson, Geo. S.,

Consulting Engineer, Hydraulic and Sanitary Work,

Kalamazoo, Mich.
Pettee, William H.,

Professor, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.

Residence, 554 Thompson street, Ann Arbor, Mich.

70 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Pope, Willard,

President Detroit Bridge and Iron Works.

Residence, 37 Putman ave., Detroit, Mich.
Parks, George E.,

Mechanical Engineer, M. C. R. R., M. C. Car Shops.

Residence, 593 W. Boulevard, Detroit, Mich.
Penton, John A.,

Publisher, The Foundry, 37 Buhl Block.

Residence, 26 Tuxedo ave., Detroit, Mich.
Porter, George F.,

Draftsman, Detroit Bridge and Iron Works,

Residence, 170 Twenty-third street, Detroit, Mich.
Robinson, George A.,

Civil Engineer, City Engineer's Office, City Hall.

Residence, 425 Cass ave., Detroit, Mich.
Russell, Walter E.,

Vice-President and Manager, Russel Wheel and Foundry Co.

Residence, 863 Jefferson ave., Detroit, Mich.
Raymond, Alexander B.,

Sanitary Engineer, Detroit Board of Health, Health Office.

Residence, 91 Prentiss ave., Detroit, Mich.
Reid, E. S.,

Mechanical Engineer, Northern Engine Works.

Residence, 505 Fourth ave., Detroit, Mich.
Rathbone, Jno. A.,

Superintendent United States Heater Co., Detroit, Mich.

Russell, C. W.,

Superintendent Russel Wheel and Foundry Co.

Residence, 75 Farnsworth street, Detroit, Mich.
Stewart, C. B.,

Civil Engineer, Chicago Union Traction Co., 2521 Kenmore ave.,
Chicago. Residence, Anchor, 111.

Stephens, Clarence M.,

Civil Engineer, Alpena.

Residence, Sherman House, Mt. Clemens, Mich.
Sabin, L. C,

United States Assistant Engineer, Corps United States Engineers,
Port Huron. Residence, Detroit, Mich.

Sack, Richard E.,

Draftsman, Edison Illuminating Co., 18 Washington ave.

Residence, 88 Preston street, Detroit, Mich.
Smith, Jesse M.,

Mechanical and Electrical Engineer, Room M 14, 220 Broadway,
New York. Residence, 7 W. Ninety-second street, New York.
Scott, William,

Superintendent Roe, Stephens Mfg. Co.

Residence, 697 Fourteenth ave., Detroit, Mich.
Sanderson, Edmund L.,

Residence, 43 Alexandrine ave., W. Detroit, Mich.
Torre y, Augustus,

Chief Engineer, Michigan Central Railway, Room 31 Michigan
Central Depot. Residence, 174 Henry street, Detroit, Mich.

DETROIT ENGINEERING SOCIETY. 71

TuTHILL, G. C.,

Assistant Bridge Engineer, Michigan Central Railway, Michigan
Central Depot, Room 74.

Residence, 107 Horton ave., Detroit, Mich.
Tippey, B. O.,

Mechanical Engineer, Detroit City Gas Co.

Residence, 131 Lafayette ave., Detroit, Mich.
Van Tuyl, Frank,

Electrical Engineer, Washtenaw Electric Co., Ypsilanti, Mich.

Residence, 324 Forest ave., Ypsilanti, Mich.
Wright, Sidney B.,

Assistant Purchasing Agent, Michigan Central Railroad.

Residence, 786 Congress street, Detroit, Mich.
Williams, E. E.,

Mechanical Engineer, with W. R. Callahan & Co., E. Third street,
Dayton, Ohio. Residence, 229 Grafton ave., Dayton, Ohio.
Wrentmore, C. G.,

M. S., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

Residence, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Wheeler, E. S.,

Assistant Engineer, United States Engineer's Office, Jones Bldg.
Residence, 76 Delaware ave., Detroit, Mich.
Wisner, G. Y.,

Civil Engineer, 34 W. Congress street.

Residence, 39 W. Canfield ave., Detroit, Mich.
Weil, Chas. L.,

Professor Mechanical Engineering, Mechanical Agricultural Col-
lege, Agricultural College P. O., Mich.
Wolfenden, Hen. L.,

Civil Engineer, with Gilbert Wilkes & Co.,

1 1 12 Union Trust Bldg., Detroit, Mich.
Whitaker, H. E.,

Mechanical Engineer, Cor. Fourth and Abbott Sts.

Residence, 301 Forest ave., Detroit, Mich.
Wilkes, Gilbert,

Consulting Engineer, with Gilbert Wilkes & Co.,

1 1 12 Union Trust Bldg., Detroit, Mich.
Williams, G. S.,

Professor, Experimental Hydraulics, Cornell University,

4 Valentine Place, Ithaca, N. Y.
Ziwet, Alex.,

Professor, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

Residence, 644 S. Ingalls street, Ann Arbor, Mich.

72 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Engineers' Society of Western New York.

Alverson, Harry B., Mem.,

Superintendent Cataract Power and Construction Co.,

Buffalo, N. Y.
Babcock, C. E. P., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Department Public Works,

13 City Hall, Buffalo, N. Y.
Bapst, Frank L., Mem.,

Contractor, 1348 Main street, Buffalo, N. Y.

Bardol, F. V. E., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Department Public Works,

13 City Hall, Buffalo, N. Y.
Bassett, Geo. B., Mem.,

Manager Buffalo Meter Co.,

363 Washington street, Buffalo, N. Y.
Booz, Horace Corey, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Pennsylvania Railroad (S. W. Div.),

433 Prospect ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
Boardman, Chas. S., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, 702 Ellicott Square, Buffalo, N. Y.

Brackenridge, W. A., Mem.,

Engineer, Cataract Construction Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y.

Busch, Chas. V., Mem.,

Private Practice, Mooney Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y.

Busch, Geo. M., Mem.,

Private Practice, Mooney Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y.

Buttolph, H. T., Mem.,

Deputy Chief Engineer, Department Public Works,

13 City Hall, Buffalo, N. Y.
Caines, Albert W., Assoc.

15 Waverly street, Buffalo, N. Y.

Carlton, Newcomb, Mem.,

Director of Works, Pan-American Exposition,

Service Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y.
Clahan, John J., Mem.,

Superintendent Buffalo Gas Co.,

133 Whitney Place, Buffalo, N. Y.
Clark, Henry, Mem.,

Contractor, 794 Auburn avenue, Buffalo, N. Y.

Cornell, Douglas, Mem.,

Structural Engineer, Bureau of Buildings,

Municipal Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y.
Dark, Samuel J., Assoc,

93 Windsor ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
Davis, Chas. Henry, Mem.,

Private Practice, 99 Cedar street, Buffalo, N. Y.

Decrow, David Augustus, Mem.,

Designing Engineer for Holly Manufacturing Co., Lockport, N. Y.
Diehl, George C, Mem.,

Private Practice, 836 Ellicott Square, Buffalo, N. Y.

ENGINEERS' SOCIETY OF WESTERN NEW YORK. 73

Eighmy, Lee W., Mem.,

Assistant and Engineer, Department Public Works,

13 City Hall, Buffalo, N. Y.
Ellsworth, John F., Mem.,

Private Practice, Franklin and Eagle streets, Buffalo, N. Y.

Fell, Charles F., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Department Public Works,

13 City Hall, Buffalo, N. Y.
Fields, S. J., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Pan-American Exposition,

Service Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y.
Foster, Horatio A., Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 310 Chestnut street, Philadelphia, Pa.

Franklin, James, Jun.,

699 Seventh street, Buffalo, N. Y.
Franklin, William, Jr., Assoc,

699 Seventh street, Buffalo, N. Y.
Fruaff, Geo. Ph., Mem.,

Leveler, Department Public Works,

13 City Hall, Buffalo, N. Y.
Gardiner, Mathew S., Jun.,

144 Seventh street, Buffalo, N. Y.
Gaskin, E. F., Mem.,

Superintendent Union Dry Dock Co.,

Ganson street, Buffalo, N. Y.
Gorham, Marvine, Mem.,

Buffalo Bolt ; nd Nut Works,

250 Elmwood avenue, Buffalo, N. Y.
Guthrie, E. B., Mem..

Chief Engineer, Grade Crossings Commission,

436 Ellicott Square, Buffalo N. Y.
Hammond, Richard, Mem.,

President Lake Erie Engineering Works,

Perry street, Buffalo, N. Y.
Harrower, H. C, Mem.,

Iron and Steel Contractor, 35 Court street, Buffalo, N. Y.

Haven, W. A., Mem.,

Inspecting Engineer, Erie Railroad,

Erie R. R. Depot, Buffalo, N. Y.
Herron, John T., Mem.,

Engineer, Buffalo Gas Co., 248 Prospect avenue, Buffalo, N. Y.
Hill, H. M., Mem.,

City Chemist, University of Buffalo, Buffalo, N. Y.

Hoffman, A. W., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Department Public Works,

13 City Hall, Buffalo, N. Y.
Houck, Wm. C, Mem.,

Member of firm, Buffalo Structural Steel Works,

97 High street, Buffalo, N. Y.
Hubbell, Geo. S., Mem.,

Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., Adjuntas, Porto Rico, U. S. A.
Huntington, Emmet W., Assoc,

Contractor, 666 Main street, East Rochester, N. Y.

74 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Humbert, W. S., Mem.,

Sears-Humbert Cement Co.,

432 Prudential Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y.
Johnson, Wallace C, Mem.,

Niagara Falls Power Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y.

Kielland, S. M., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Buffalo Creek Railroad,

351 Humboldt Parkway, Buffalo, N. Y.
Knapp, L. H., Mem.,

Assistant Superintendent and Engineer, Bureau of Water,

Municipal Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y.
Knighton, John A., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Grade Crossing Commission,

436 Ellicott Square, Buffalo, N. Y.
Lewis, Clarence Chas., Mem.,

Engineer of Way, Buffalo Railway Co., Buffalo, N. Y.

Lufkin, E. C, Mem.,

Manager Snow Steam Pump Works.

150 W. North street, Buffalo, N. Y.
March, H. J., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Department Public Works,

13 City Hall, Buffalo, N. Y.
Marsh, George E., Jun.,

108 Plymouth ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
Martin, Dr. T. J.. Assoc,

Rep. Buffalo Branch N. Y. Electric Vehicle and Trans. Co.,

279 North street, Buffalo, N. Y.
McCulloh, Walter, Mem.,

Private Practice, Crick Block, Niagara Falls, N. Y.

Meyer, Carl, Mem.,

Member of firm, Buffalo Bridge Works,

P. O. Box 170, Buffalo, N. Y.

Morse, Chas. M., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, Erie Bank Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y.

Morse, Geo. Fred'k, Mem.,

21 Columbus Place, Buffalo, N. Y.
Marburg, Louis, Assoc,

Contractor, 264 Hoyt street, Buffalo, N. Y.

Mosier, Chas., Assoc,

Contractor, 1266 Seneca street, Buffalo, N. Y.

Norton, Geo. H., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Department Public Works,

13 City Hall, Buffalo, N. Y.
Patch, Maurice B., Mem.,

Buffalo Smelting Works, 1 Austin street, Buffalo, N. Y.

Powell, S. W., Mem.,

679 Auburn avenue, Buffalo, N. Y.
Rogers, Thos. J., Mem.,

Engineer, Park Department, 1322 Prudential Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y.
Ricker, Geo. A., Mem.,

Private Practice, 702 Ellicott Square, Buffalo, N. Y.

Roberts, Geo. T., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Department Public Works,

13 City Hall, Buffalo, N. Y.

ENGINEERS' SOCIETY OF WESTERN NEW YORK. 75

Rockwood, A. J., Mem.,

Division Engineer, N. Y. State Canals, Rochester, N. Y.

Sikes, G. R., Mem.,

Private Practice, 957 Ellicott Square, Buffalo, N. Y.

Smith, T. Guilford, Mem.,

Vice-President N. Y. Car Wheel Works,

9 German Insurance Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y.
Sornberger, E. C, Mem.,

Snow Steam Pump Works, 208 Lancaster avenue, Buffalo, N. Y.
Speyer, F. N., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Grade Crossings Commission,

436 Ellicott Square, Buffalo, N. Y.
Symons, Thos. W., Hon. Mem.,

Major of Engineers, U. S. A., Morgan Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y.

Teiper, Casper, Mem.,

Member of firm, Buffalo Structural Steel Works,

24 Briggs avenue, Buffalo, N. Y.
Tresise, F. J., Mem.,

Draftsman, Department Public Works,

13 City Hall, Buffalo, N. Y.
Tutton, C. H., Mem.,

Engineer. Grattan & Jennings, Ft. Main street, Buffalo. N. Y.
Vanderhoek, J., Mem.,

Division Engineer, Lehigh Valley Railroad,

L. V. R. R. Depot, Buffalo, N. Y.
Witford, O. F., Mem.,

Private Practice, 79 Woodlawn avenue, Buffalo, N. Y.

Wilson, Thos. Wm., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Buffalo Railway Co.,

448 Elmwood avenue, Buffalo, N. Y.
Weston, Alonzo H., Mem.,

Service Bldg., Pan-American Exposition,

Care S. J. Fields, Buffalo, N. Y.
Witmer, J. F., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 705 Ellicott Square, Buffalo, N. Y.

Youngs, Jasper S., Mem.,

831 Seventh street, Buffalo, N. Y.

76 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Louisiana Engineering- Society.

Armstrong, J. W., Mem.,

Draftsman, Sewerage and Water Board,

602 Carondelet street, New Orleans.
Beer, S. T., Jun. Mem.,

Engineering Supplies, Baronne, near Canal, New Orleans.

Bell, A. C, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Room 20 Denegre Bldg., New Orleans.

Benson, Robt. B., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Drainage Commission,

City Hall, New Orleans.
Black, A. L., Mem.,

Engineer St. Charles Street Railroad Co,

2300 Decatur street, New Orleans.
Blakemore, A. B., Mem.,

General Manager C. C. Stock Yard and Slaughter House Co.,

New Orleans.
Blanchin, Geo., Mem.,

Contractor, 316 Baronne street, New Orleans.

Brown, L. W., Mem.,

Civil an Mechanical Engineer,

741 Carondelet street, New Orleans.
Brownlee, Jas. L., Mem.,

United States Assistant Engineer,

Custom House Bldg., New Orleans.
Calongne, Sidney A., Assoc. Mem.,

Paving Contractor, 806 Perdido street, New Orleans.

Camors, Frederic, Assoc. Mem.,

Dredge Contractor, 505 Tchoupitoulas street, New Orleans.

Chamberlin, C. H., Mem.,

Resident Engineer, Texas and Pacific Railroad,

106 Thalia street, New Orleans.
Clegg, Judge Jno., Assoc. Mem.,

Attorney-at-Law, 814 Hennen Bldg., New Orleans.

Coleman, J. F., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Firm of Coleman & Malochee,

121 Carondelet street, New Orleans.
Crotts, Wm. T., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Sewerage and Water Board, New Orleans.
Davis, Chas. Henry, Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 99 Cedar street, New York city.

De Buys, R E., Mem.,

Civil and Architectural Engineer,

421 Carondelet street, New Orleans.
D'Heur, Allard, Mem.,

Engineer, Southern Pacific Railroad, Wumemucca, Nev.

Duval, A. C, Mem.,

Chief Draftsman, State Board of Engineers, New Orleans.

Earl, Geo. G... Mem.,

General Superintendent, Sewerage and Water Board,

602 Carondelet street, New Orleans.

LOUISIANA ENGINEERING SOCIETY. 77

Eastwood, John T., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Sewerage and Water Board,

602 Carondelet street, New Orleans.
Flanagan, P. J., Assoc. Mem.,

Building Inspector, City Engineer's Office, New Orleans.

Frawley, Jno. J., Assoc. Mem.,

Contractor, 315 Carondelet street, New Orleans.

Gibbens, Will. J., Mem.,

Gibbens & Stream, Sugar Machinery,

213 Carol street, New Orleans.
Godchaux, Jules, Assoc. Mem.,

Planter, Raceland, La.

Grasser, E. A., Assoc. Mem.,

Contractor, 1306 Seventh street, New Orleans.

Hardee, Wm. J., Mem.,

City Engineer, City Hall, New Orleans.

Harrison, G. B., Mem.,

Division Superintendent, Bridges and Buildings, Texas and Pacific
Railroad Co., . Boyce, La.

Harrod, Maj. B. M., Mem.

Chief Engineer, Drainage Commission, City Hall, New Orleans.
Haugh, Jas. C, Mem.,

Resident Engineer, New Orleans and Northeastern Railroad Co.,
Press and Levee streets, New Orleans.
Haygood, Geo. L., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 921 St. Louis street, New Orleans.

Hazlehurst, J. M., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 606 Commercial Place, New Orleans.

Hoffman, Walter H., Mem.,

Secretary State Board of Engineers,

Cotton Exchange Bldg., New Orleans.
Hyatt, E. C, Mem.,

Inspector, Drainage Commission, City Hall, New Orleans.

Ivv. Ernest D., Mem.,

Engineer and Agent, Heine Boiler Co.,

Godchaux Bldg., New Orleans.
Jancke, Ernest Lee, Mem.

Superintendent Jancke Navigation Co.,

816 Howard ave., New Orleans.
Kerr, Frank M., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Cotton Exchange Bldg., New Orleans.

Kirkland, W. C, Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Drainage Commission,

City Hall, New Orleans.
Klorer, Jno., Mem.,

Assistant United Mates Engineer,

* 1810 Dumaine street, New Orleans.

Lambert, E. L., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Drainage Commission,

City Hall, New Orleans.
La wes, G. W., Mem.,

Assistant Draftsman, State Board of Engineers,

Cotton Exchange. New Orleans.
11

78 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Lewis, S. F., Mem.,

Assistant State Engineer, Cotton Exchange, New Orleans.

Lion, L. E., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, ioio Burgun 'y street. New Orleans.

Llewellyn, F. P., Mem.,

Engineer of Gillette-Herzog Mfg. Co.,

Room 1012 Hennen Bldg., New Orleans.
Lockett, A. M., Mem.,

A. M. Lockett & Co., Contracting Mechanical Engineers,

339 Carondelet street, New Orleans.
Lombard, Gervais, Mem.,

Engineer, Orleans Levee Board,

337 St. Charles street, New Orleans.
Malochee, H. J., Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer and Electrical Engineer, Firm of Coleman &
Malochee, 121 Carondelet street, New Orleans.

Manning, Jos. E., Assoc. Mem.,

Contractor, Room 306 Hennen Bldg., New Orleans.

Middlemiss, Geo. A., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, New Orleans Drainage Commission,

City Hall, New Orleans.
Mullen, F. P., Assoc. Mem.,

General Manager, Barber Asphalt Paving Co.,

Hennen Bldg., New Orleans.
McCarkendale, Wm., Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Edison Electric Co.,

317 Baronne street, New Orleans.
McKinney, E. B., Mem.,

Chief Engineer New Orleans City Railroad Co. Power House,

1515 Constance street, New Orleans.
Nelson, A. J., Mem.,

Manager New Orleans Roofing and Metal Works,

701 L. and L. and G. Bldg., New Orleans.
Ordway, John M., Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 3125 Chestnut street, New Orleans.

Perrilliat, Arsene, Mem.,

Assistant State Engineer, Cotton Exchange Bldg., New Orleans.
Raymond, Alfred, Mem.,

General Manager, New Orleans Drainage Commission,

City Hall, New Orleans.
Raymond, Chas. L., Mem..

First Assistant Engineer, Drainage Commission,

City Hall, New Orleans.
Richardson, Maj. Henry B., Mem.,

Chief State Engineer of Louisiana,

Cotton Exchange Bldg., New Orleans.
Richardson, John F., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Sewerage and Waj:er Board,

602 Carondelet street. New Orleans.
Robertson, Marshall P., Mem.,

Assistant State Engineer, Cotton Exchange Bldg., New Orleans.
Samson, P. H. Mem.,

New Orleans Wood Preserving Works,

3907 Magazine street, New Orleans.

LOUISIANA ENGINEERING SOCIETY. 79

Smith, Wright, Mem.,

Assistant City Engineer, City Hall, New Orleans.

Stewart, Hunter, Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 218 Bourbon street, New Orleans.

Theard, A. F., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Drainage Commission,

City Hall, New Orleans.
Thompson, H. B., Mem.,

Assistant State Engineer, Cotton Exchange Bldg., New Orleans.
Tutwiler, T. H., Mem.,

Engineer. New Orleans and Carrollton Railroad Co.,

L. and L. and G. Bldg., New Orleans.
Yillere, St. Denis J., Mem.,

Electrical and Mechanical Engineer,

2139 Dauphine street, New Orleans.
Vox Phul, William, Mem.,

Superintendent Edison Electric Co.,

317 Baronne street, New Orleans.
Waddill, F. H., Mem.,

Civil Engineer of Daney & Waddill,

Masonic Temple, New Orleans.
White, E. P., Mem.,

Superintendent of Estate of S. L. James,

601 Hennen Bldg., New Orleans.
White, W. M., Mem..

Assistant General Manager, New Orleans Drainage Commission,

City Hall, New Orleans.
White, W. S., Mem.,

Engineer, Hunter Canal Co., Le Roy, La.

Willard, Ben., Mem..

Electrical Engineer and Manager General Electric Co.,

917 Hennen Bldg., New Orleans.
Willoz, Victor L., Mem.,

Superintendent Orleans Railroad Co.,

1 1 18 Marais street, New Orleans.
Wright, W. B., Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Drainage Commission,

City Hall, New Orleans.
Zander, Henry L., Mem.,

Draftsman, New Orleans Drainage Commission,

City Hall, New Orleans.

8o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Engineers' Club of Cincinnati.

Anderson, Latham, Hon. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Kuttawa, Ky.

Baird, Samuel P., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Portsmouth Street R. R. and Light Co.,

Portsmouth, Ohio.
Baldwin, Bert L., Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 72 Perin Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Baldwin, Hadley, Act. Mem.,

Engineer Maintenance of Way, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and
St. Louis Railway, Indianapolis, Ind.

Baldwin, Ward, Act. Mem.,

Consulting Engineer, 64 Mitchell Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Birch, Thos. H., Act. Mem.,

Engineer and Assistant Manager Stacey Mfg. Co.,

239 Mill street, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Birch, Wm. W., Act. Mem..

Assistant Engineer Stacey Mfg. Co.,

239 Mill street, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Bogen, Louis E.. Act. Mem.,

Instructor in Physics, University cf Cincinnati,

547 Hale ave., Avondale, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Bouscaren, G., Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Board of Trustees, Commissioners of Water
Works, City Hall, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Breckinridge, Cabell, Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Danville, Ky.

Bryan, R. A., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Portsmouth, Ohio.

Caldwell, J. Nelson, Act. Mem.,

U. S. Assistant Engineer, Custom House, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Carlisle, John, Act. Mem.,

Carlisle Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Carpenter, E. J., Act. Mem.,

U. S. Assistant Engineer, Custom House, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Carroll, Eugene, Act. Mem.,

Constructing Engineer and Superintendent Butte City Water Co.,

Butte, Mont.
Coney, W. W., Assoc. Mem.,

Dealer in Cement, etc., 1434 Main street, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Cowper, John W., Act. Mem.,

Engineer Maintenance of Way, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago
and St. Louis Railway, Mattoon, 111.

Cox, Allan, Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, • Covington, Ky.

Creaghead, Thos. J., Act. Mem.,

President and General Manager Creaghead Engineering Co.,

802 Plum street, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Davis, Chas. H., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 99 Cedar street, New York, N. Y.

ENGINEERS' CLUB OF CINCINNATI. 81

Devereux, H., Act. Mem.,

Resident Engineer Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern Ry.,

North Vernon, Ind.
Diemer, Hugo, Act. Mem.,

Professor M. E., Michigan Agricultural College,

Agricultural College P. O., Mich.
Doane, Wm. H., Act. Mem.,

President Central Trust and Safe Deposit Co.,

Albany Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Dreses, Henry, Act. Mem.,

Dreses, Mueller & Co., Mfrs. of Machine Tools,

2261 Buck street, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Elzner, A. O., Act. Mem.,

Architect, 18 E. Fourth street, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Engle, Robert L., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 1530 Westminster ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Ewing, Chas. A., Act. Mem.,

Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad, New Braunfield, Texas.
Fales, Frank L., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer Board of Trustees, Commissioners of Water
Works, City Hall, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Fenton, B. W., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Findlay, Ft. Wayne and Western R. R.,

Findlay, Ohio.
Flinn, Estus T., Act. Mem.,

Road Master Southern Pacific Ry. Co., Tucson, Ariz.

Frank, Alfred, Act. Mem.,

Montana Ore Purchasing Co., Butte, Mont.

Fritch, L. C, Act. Mem.,

Superintendent O. and M. Division, Baltimore and Ohio South-
western Railway, Washington, Ind.
Fritsch, Jos. L., Act. Mem.,

Draftsman, Chief Engineer's Office, Board of Trustees, Commis-
sioners of Water Works, City Hall, Cincinnati, Ohio.
■Garrard, Jeptha, Assoc. Mem.,

Attorney-at-Law, 407 Johnston Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Goldfogle, David, Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, Dennison Hotel, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Gordon, C. M., Act. Mem.,

County Surveyor, Brown county, Georgetown, Ohio.

Gray, Geo. A., Act. Mem.,

Manufacturer of Machine Tools,

Gest and Depot streets, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Green, Wm. C, Assoc. Mem.,

Manager Warren, Webster & Co., and O. H. Jewell Filter Co.,

42 Perin Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Hauck, Albert L., Act. Mem.,

Secretary and Treasurer The Manss Shoe Mfg. Co.,

709 Sycamore street, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Hobart, Jas. C, Act. Mem.,

Secretary and Manager Triumph Electric and Ice Machine Co.,

610 Baymiller street, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Hiller, John A., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Board of Trustees, Commissioners of Water
Works, 2545 Eastern ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.

82 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Hosbrook, J. A., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 429 Pike Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio-

Innes, H. C, Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Warren- Scharf Asphalt Paving Co., 64 Blymyer
Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio, or Hartwell, Ohio.

Jewett, Wm. C, Act. Mem.,

Resident Engineer, Board of Trustees, Commissioners of Water
Works, 541 Ridgeway ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Kittredge, Geo. W., Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Ry.,

Cincinnati, Ohio.
Knowlton, Chas. A., Act. Mem.,

United States Resident Engineer, Guantanamo, Cuba.

Koch, H. A., Act. Mem.,

S. and R. R. V. R. R., Shreveport, La.

Laidlaw, Walter, Act. Mem.,

President Laidlaw -Dunn-Gordon Co., Steam Power and Hand
Pumps, Mill and Factory Supplies.

Pearl and Plum streets, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Lane, H. M., Act. Mem.,

President Lane & Bodley Co., Iron Founders, Engine, Boiler and
Saw Mill Builders, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Lietze, Ernst, Act. Mem.,

Mechanical Engineer, 13 Longworth street, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Lilly, James A., Act. Mem.,

Engineer and Road Master Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern Ry.,

Cincinnati, Ohio.
McAvoy, Irving, Act. Mem.,

Southern Pacific Company, Gila Bend, Ariz.

Meeds, C. H., Act. Mem.,

Assistant XJ. S. Engineer, 518 Walnut street, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Miller, Clifford N., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Board of Trustees, Commissioners of Water
Works, City Hall, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Mitchell, F. S., Act. Mem.,

Engineer for R. M. Quigley & Co., Contractors, California, Ohio.
Morris, Frank E., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Board of Public Service, City Hall,

or 2846 Harrison ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Nicholson, G. B., Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Pacific Ry. Co.,

530 Garrard street, Covington, Ky.
Osborn, S. J., Jr., Assoc. Mem.,

Roofing, Paving and Sidewalk Contractor,

Pearl and Eggleston ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Petry, Alfred, Act. Mem.,

Resident Engineer, Board of Trustees, Commissioners of Water
Works, California, Ohio.

Pfister, Herman, Assoc. Mem.,

Instrument Maker, 428 Plum street, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Punshon, Thos. B., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer and Surveyor, Glenn Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Rabbe, J. A., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 404 Pike Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio..

ENGINEERS' CLUB OF CINCINNATI. 83

Randolph, Epes, Act. Mem.,

Division Superintendent Southern Pacific Co., Tucson, Ariz.

Read, Robt. L., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 32 East Third street, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Ruggles, W. B., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Department Western Cuba, Matanzas, Cuba.
Scarborough, F. W., Act. Mem.,

Signal Engineer Chesapeake and Ohio Ry., Richmond, Va.

Schreiber, Charles C, Assoc. Mem.,

Vice-President and General Manager L. Schreiber & Sons Co.,
Mfrs. of Architectural Iron Works,

Eighth street and Eggleston ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Siefert, Frank J., Act. Mem.,

Engineer Department Board of Public Service,

City Hall, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Stanley, H. J., Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Board of Public Service,

City Hall, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Stewart, Jas. A., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 517 Johnston Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Stuart, A. A., Act. Mem.,

Engineer and Manager for M. T. Davis, construction of Substruc-
ture Quebec Bridge, Sillery P. O., Canada.
Totten, A. I., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 30 Woodland ave., Lexington, Ky.

Totten, W. H. D., Assoc. Mem.,

Resident Agent for Carnegie Steel Co., Lim., Pittsburg, Pa.,

Neave Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Venable, M. W., Act. Mem.,

Civil Engineer, 56 Capitol street, Charleston, W. Va.

Venable, W. M.. Act. Mem.,

With National Contracting Co., 11 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Walsh, M., Assoc. Mem.,

Superintendent Bridges and Buildings, C, N. O. and T. P. Ry. Co.,

Somerset, Ky.
Walter, Harrison B., Act. Mem.,

General Contractor, Box 32, Danville, 111.

Warder, R. H., Assoc. Mem.,

410 W. Eighth street, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Warrington, H. E., Act. Mem.,

Assistant Engineer, Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Pacific
Ry. Co., Odd Fellows' Temple, Cincinnati, Ohio.

White, I. F., Act. Mem.,

Superintendent Track and Structures, Cincinnati, Hamilton and
Dayton Ry., Hamilton, Ohio.

Wilson, C. A.. Act. Mem.,

Chief Engineer, Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Ry.,

Carew Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Wilson, J. F., Act. Mem.,

Chief Clerk, Engineer Department, Board of Trustees, Commis-
sioners of Water Works, City Hall, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Wrampelmeier, F. W., Act. Mem.,

Chicago and Alton Railroad, Bloomington, 111.

Wulff, Adolph G., Act. Mem.,

Engineer with Joslin, Schmidt & Co., Chemical Engineers,

Spring Grove ave., opposite Bates, Cincinnati, Ohio.

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